Analysis of Food Toxins and Toxicants (eBook)
John Wiley & Sons (Verlag)
978-1-118-99271-5 (ISBN)
Analysis of Food Toxins and Toxicants consists of five sections, providing up-to-date descriptions of the analytical approaches used to detect a range of food toxins. Part I reviews the recent developments in analytical technology including sample pre-treatment and food additives. Part II covers the novel analysis of microbial and plant toxins including plant pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Part III focuses on marine toxins in fish and shellfish. Part IV discusses biogenic amines and common food toxicants, such as pesticides and heavy metals. Part V summarizes quality assurance and the recent developments in regulatory limits for toxins, toxicants and allergens, including discussions on laboratory accreditation and reference materials.
About the Editors
Yiu-chung Wong, Analytical and Advisory Services Division, Government Laboratory, Hong Kong
Richard J. Lewis, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Australia
Analysis of Food Toxins and Toxicants consists of five sections, providing up-to-date descriptions of the analytical approaches used to detect a range of food toxins. Part I reviews the recent developments in analytical technology including sample pre-treatment and food additives. Part II covers the novel analysis of microbial and plant toxins including plant pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Part III focuses on marine toxins in fish and shellfish. Part IV discusses biogenic amines and common food toxicants, such as pesticides and heavy metals. Part V summarizes quality assurance and the recent developments in regulatory limits for toxins, toxicants and allergens, including discussions on laboratory accreditation and reference materials.
About the Editors Yiu-chung Wong, Analytical and Advisory Services Division, Government Laboratory, Hong Kong Richard J. Lewis, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Australia
Analysis of Food Toxins and Toxicants 1
Contents 7
List of Contributors 11
Foreword 19
Preface 21
Section I: Recent Analytical Technology for Food Pathogens and Toxins 23
1: Omic Analysis of Protein and Peptide Toxins in Food 25
1.1 Introduction 25
1.2 Methods of Food Toxin Analysis 26
1.3 Analytical Techniques 28
1.3.1 MS-Based Proteomics 28
1.3.2 Bottom-up and Top-down Proteomics 29
1.3.3 Data Interpretation and Database Searching 31
1.4 Food Protein and Peptide Toxins from Micro-organisms 31
1.4.1 Bacterial Toxins 32
1.4.2 Fungal NRP Toxins 35
1.4.3 Other Fungal Toxins and LMW Mycotoxins 36
1.4.4 Marine and Cyanobacterial Biotoxins 37
1.5 Phytotoxins 38
1.6 Food Allergens 40
1.7 Food Additives and Processing 44
1.7.1 Food Preservatives 44
1.7.2 Food Processing 45
1.8 Conclusions 48
References 49
2: Biotechnology-Based Sensing Platforms for Detecting Foodborne Pathogens 59
2.1 Introduction 59
2.1.1 Health Legislations Governing Food and Food-related Products 59
2.1.2 Emerging Foodborne Pathogens 59
2.2 Different Methods for Pathogen Detection 60
2.2.1 Conventional Culture and Colony-Based Techniques 62
2.2.2 Antibody-Based Detection Technologies 63
2.3 Biosensors to Detect Foodborne Pathogen 63
2.3.1 Introduction to Biosensors 63
2.3.2 Bioreceptors 64
2.3.2.1 Enzyme-Based Bioreceptors 64
2.3.2.2 Antibody-Based Bioreceptors 64
2.3.2.3 Nucleic Acid-Based Bioreceptors 65
2.3.2.4 Cell-Based Bioreceptors 65
2.3.3 Biomimetic Receptors 65
2.4 Bacteriophages 65
2.5 Transducers 66
2.6 Optical Biosensors 66
2.6.1 Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 66
2.6.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance 66
2.6.3 Fiber Optic Biosensor 67
2.7 Polymerase Chain Reaction Based Detection Technology 67
2.8 Multiplexed Bead-Based Mesofluidic System 69
2.9 Future Genomics-Based Systems 69
References 69
3: Review of Sample Treatments and the State-of-the-art of Analytical Techniques for Mycotoxins in Food 73
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 Aflatoxins 75
3.3 Ochratoxin A 79
3.4 Fusarium Toxins 83
3.4.1 Fumonisins 83
3.4.2 Trichothecenes 85
3.4.3 Zearalenone 86
3.5 Patulin 87
3.6 Citrinin 89
3.7 Ergot Alkaloids 90
3.8 Multi-Mycotoxin Determination 92
3.9 Final Remarks and Conclusions 95
References 95
4: Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification for Food Toxicity Analyses 125
4.1 Introduction 125
4.2 Isothermal Amplification Reactions 128
4.2.1 Nucleic Acid Sequence-Based Amplification 128
4.2.2 Strand Displacement Amplification 129
4.2.3 Multiple Displacement Amplification 130
4.2.4 Rolling Circle Amplification 130
4.2.5 Helicase-dependent Amplification 131
4.2.6 Recombinase Polymerase Amplification 132
4.2.7 Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification 133
4.2.8 Emerging Isothermal Amplification Methods 133
4.3 Comparison of Isothermal Techniques 134
4.4 Available Technologies 136
4.4.1 Benchtop Instruments 136
4.4.2 Visual 138
4.4.3 Lateral Flow Assays 139
4.4.4 Biosensors 140
4.4.5 Miniaturized Devices 141
4.4.6 Instrument-free Strategies 142
4.5 Applications for Food Toxicity Analyses 143
4.5.1 Pathogen Detection 143
4.5.2 Fungal Contamination 145
4.5.3 GMOs 146
4.5.4 Allergen Detection 147
4.5.5 Food Authentication 147
4.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 148
References 149
Section II: Microbial and Plant Toxins 159
5: Determination of Mycotoxins in Food 161
5.1 Introduction 161
5.2 Mycotoxins 162
5.2.1 Ochratoxins 162
5.2.2 Aflatoxins 164
5.2.3 Citrinin 164
5.2.4 Fumonisins 164
5.2.5 Trichothecenes 164
5.2.6 Patulin 167
5.3 Mycotoxins in Food: Legislation and Provision 167
5.4 Detection of Mycotoxins 168
5.4.1 Conventional Analytical Methods 170
5.4.1.1 Sample Pre-treatment Techniques 171
5.4.1.2 Methods for Qualitative/Quantitative Analytical Analysis 172
5.4.2 Biosensors 174
5.4.2.1 Bioreceptors in Biosensors 175
5.4.2.2 Assay Formats 175
5.4.2.3 Electrochemical Biosensors 177
5.4.2.4 Optical Biosensors 177
5.4.2.5 Bio-Affinity Methods 179
5.4.3 Other Detection Methodologies 181
5.4.3.1 Optical Rotatory Dispersion 181
5.4.3.2 Circular Dichroism 181
5.4.3.3 Optical Spectroscopy Methods 181
5.4.3.4 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy 181
5.4.3.5 Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectroscopy 181
5.4.3.6 Raman Spectroscopy 182
5.4.3.7 Optoelectronics 182
5.5 Conclusion 182
References 183
6: Mycotoxins Detection in Asia 191
6.1 Introduction 191
6.2 Food Sampling for Mycotoxins Analysis 195
6.2.1 Sample Extraction and Purification 199
6.2.1.1 Sample Extraction 199
6.2.1.2 Pressurised Liquid Extraction (PLE) 199
6.2.1.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) 199
6.2.1.4 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) 199
6.2.1.5 Ultrasonic Extraction (USE) 200
6.2.2 Sample Purification 200
6.2.2.1 Solid-Phase Extraction 200
6.2.2.2 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 200
6.2.2.3 Immunoaffinity Columns 201
6.2.2.4 Quick-Easy-Cheap-Effective-Rugged-Safe Extraction 201
6.3 Detection 201
6.3.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography 202
6.3.2 Gas Chromatography 202
6.3.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 203
6.3.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-MS) 204
6.3.5 Rapid Screening Methods 206
6.3.6 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays 206
6.3.7 Dipsticks and Lateral Flow Tests 207
6.4 Conclusion 207
References 208
7: Surface Plasmon Resonance Analysis of Food Toxins and Toxicants 217
7.1 Introduction 217
7.2 Detection of Toxins and Other Toxicants in Food Samples 222
7.2.1 Food Allergens 222
7.2.2 Pathogen Microorganisms 225
7.2.3 Toxicants 227
7.2.3.1 Antibiotics and Hormones 227
7.2.3.2 Herbicides 228
7.2.4 Toxins 229
7.2.4.1 Mycotoxins 229
7.2.4.2 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins 229
7.2.4.3 Tetrodotoxins 230
7.3 Conclusion 231
References 231
8: Food Poisoning Case Studies: Mushroom and Pufferfish Toxin Investigation 239
8.1 Introduction 239
8.1.1 Mushroom Toxins 239
8.1.2 Tetrodotoxin 241
8.2 Brief Review of Analytical Methods 242
8.3 Case Study Related to Food Poisoning 243
8.3.1 WHO's Mushroom Poisoning Incident Referral 243
8.3.1.1 LC-MS/MS Methods 243
8.3.1.2 DNA Analysis of Mushroom Sample 246
8.3.1.3 Results and Discussions 247
8.3.1.4 Case Conclusions 249
8.3.2 Food Surveillance for Processed Foods 249
8.3.2.1 LC-MS/MS Methods for TTX 250
8.3.2.2 DNA Analysis of Dried Fish Sample 251
8.3.2.3 Results and Discussion 252
8.3.2.4 Case Conclusions 254
References 255
9: The Analysis of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Honey 259
9.1 Introduction 259
9.2 Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids 260
9.2.1 Plant Sources 260
9.2.2 Levels of Occurrence 261
9.2.3 Toxicity 261
9.2.4 Human Exposure 262
9.3 Analysis 263
9.3.1 Sampling 263
9.3.2 Stability of PA 263
9.3.3 Extraction and Cleanup 263
9.4 Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry 266
9.4.1 Quantification by LC-MS 268
9.4.2 LC-TOF-MS 270
9.4.3 Gas Chromatography 271
9.5 Sum Parameter Methods for PA Quantitation 272
9.6 Method Validation and Proficiency Tests 276
9.7 Comparison of Direct and Sum Parameter Approaches 277
9.8 Analysis of Borage Oil and Bee Products 277
9.9 Immunological Methods for PA Determination 278
9.10 Other Methods 280
9.11 PA Standards 282
9.12 Conclusions 282
References 283
10: Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Food: Analytical, Toxicological and Health Considerations 289
10.1 Introduction 289
10.1.1 Chemistry of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids 289
10.1.2 PA-Containing Plants 291
10.1.3 Biosynthesis of PAs 291
10.2 Toxicity of PAs 294
10.2.1 Toxicity Studies in Animals 295
10.2.2 Metabolism of PAs 297
10.2.3 Excretion 300
10.2.4 Diagnosis 300
10.2.5 Symptoms of Toxicity 300
10.3 Regulation of PAs 301
10.4 Human PA Intoxications 302
10.4.1 Grain 303
10.4.2 Teas and Herbal Products 305
10.4.2.1 Case Studies 305
10.4.3 Traditional Medicines 308
10.4.4 PA Poisoning Through Foodstuffs 315
10.5 Analytical Methods for PA Determination 320
10.5.1 Extraction Methods 320
10.5.2 Clean-up Procedures 321
10.5.3 Ehrlich Reaction 321
10.5.4 Chromatographic Methods 321
10.5.4.1 Thin-layer Chromatography 321
10.5.4.2 Gas Chromatography 322
10.5.4.3 High Performance Liquid Chromatography 322
10.5.4.4 Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry 322
10.5.4.5 Use of Enzyme-Linked Immunoassays 324
10.5.4.6 Biological Assays 326
10.5.4.7 Other Techniques 326
10.6 Conclusions 327
References 328
Section III: Marine Toxins 341
11: The Determination of Marine Biotoxins in Seafood 343
11.1 Introduction 343
11.2 In Vivo Assays 346
11.2.1 Neurotoxins Including PSP Toxins and TTXs 347
11.2.2 Lipophilic Biotoxins Including DSP Toxins, AZP Toxins, YTXs, PTXs and CIs 347
11.2.3 Brevetoxins 348
11.2.4 Palytoxins 348
11.2.5 Ciguatoxins 349
11.3 In Vitro Assays 349
11.3.1 Domoic Acid 349
11.3.2 Neurotoxins Including PSP Toxins, TTX, NSP Toxins and CFP Toxins 350
11.3.3 Lipophilic Biotoxins Including DSP Toxins, AZP Toxins, YTXs, PTXs and CIs 352
11.3.4 Palytoxins 353
11.4 Immunochemical Methods 354
11.4.1 Domoic Acid 354
11.4.2 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins 355
11.4.3 Tetrodotoxins 357
11.4.4 Ciguatoxins 358
11.4.5 Lipophilic Biotoxins Including DSP Toxins, AZP Toxins, YTXs, PTXs and CIs 358
11.4.6 Brevetoxins 359
11.4.7 Palytoxins 360
11.5 Analytical Chemical Methods 360
11.5.1 Domoic Acid 360
11.5.2 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins 361
11.5.3 Lipophilic Biotoxins Including DSP Toxins, AZP Toxins, YTXs, PTXs and CIs 363
11.5.4 Tetrodotoxins 365
11.5.5 Ciguatoxins 365
11.5.6 Brevetoxins 366
11.5.7 Palytoxins 366
11.6 Conclusions 367
References 368
12: Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Molluscs 385
12.1 Introduction 385
12.2 Methods of Analysis 388
12.2.1 Bioassays 388
12.2.1.1 Mouse Bioassay 388
12.2.1.2 Receptor Binding Assay 389
12.2.1.3 Immunological, Cytotoxic and Radioligand Binding Assays 389
12.2.2 Chemical Assays 390
12.2.2.1 Reference Materials 390
12.2.2.2 Extraction Methods 391
12.2.2.3 HPLC with Pre-Column Oxidation 392
12.2.2.4 HPLC with PCOX 394
12.2.2.5 Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography 398
12.2.2.6 High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry 400
12.3 Routine Shellfish Testing 406
12.3.1 HILIC-MS 406
12.3.2 High Resolution and Novel MS Approaches 409
12.3.2.1 High Resolution Mass Spectrometry 409
12.3.2.2 Ion Mobility MS 411
12.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook 412
References 412
13: Determination of Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin in Fish 425
13.1 Introduction 425
13.1.1 Targets 426
13.2 Toxin Analysis 428
13.2.1 Mouse Bioassay 428
13.2.2 In vitro Receptor Binding Assay 431
13.2.3 Molecular Recognition Assays 432
13.2.3.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay 434
13.2.3.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance Assay 436
13.2.4 Chromatographic Detection Methods 437
13.2.4.1 Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection 438
13.2.4.2 Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectrometric Detection 440
13.3 Sample Preparation 442
13.3.1 Extraction of Toxin from Fish 442
13.3.2 Sample Purification 443
13.4 Conclusion 444
Disclaimer 445
References 445
14: Determination of Saxitoxin, Tetrodotoxin and Common Phycotoxins 453
14.1 Introduction 453
14.2 Saxitoxin and Analogs 454
14.2.1 Functional and Antibody-Based Assays 454
14.2.2 Analysis 464
14.2.2.1 Liquid Chromatography with Fluorimetric Detection 464
14.2.2.2 Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectrometric Detection 467
14.3 Tetrodotoxin 468
14.3.1 The Need for Analysis of TTX 469
14.3.2 Analysis of TTX 470
14.3.3 Simultaneous Analysis of TTX and PSPs 471
14.4 Toxicity Equivalency Factors 472
14.5 Future Trends 475
Acknowledgments 475
References 478
15: Ciguatoxin Detection Methods and High-Throughput Assays 491
15.1 Introduction 491
15.1.1 Ciguatera 491
15.1.2 Clinical Presentation of Ciguatera 493
15.1.3 Pharmacology of Ciguatoxins 494
15.1.4 Treatment 495
15.2 Detection Methods 496
15.2.1 In Vivo Detection of Ciguatoxins 496
15.2.2 Immunochemical Assays 498
15.2.3 Receptor Binding Assays 499
15.2.4 Cell-Based Assays 499
15.2.4.1 Tetrazolium Cell Viability Assay 499
15.2.4.2 Cell-Based Fluorescent Imaging Assays 500
15.2.5 High-Throughput Electrophysiology 502
15.2.6 Mass Spectrometry 502
15.3 Conclusion 503
Acknowledgements 503
References 503
Section IV: Biogenic Amines and Common Food Toxicants 511
16. Detection of Histamine Based on Biosensor System 513
16.1 Introduction 513
16.2 Histamine Detection Methods 514
16.2.1 Histamine Sensor Using Enzymes 515
16.2.2 Thermostable Histamine Oxidase 516
16.2.2.1 Expression and Purification of the Recombinant Histamine Oxidase from KAIT-B-007 516
16.2.3 Micro-Bioreactor-Based Histamine-Sensing System 518
16.3 Detection of Histamine in Raw Fish 522
16.4 Conclusion and Future Landscape 524
References 524
17: Flow-based Technology for Analysis of Food Pesticides 527
17.1 Introduction 527
17.2 Flow-Based Methodologies 528
17.2.1 FIA 528
17.2.2 SIA 529
17.2.3 Multicommutation 529
17.2.3.1 MCFIA 530
17.2.3.2 MSFIA 530
17.2.3.3 MPFS 531
17.2.4 Lab-on-valve 532
17.3 Detection Techniques 532
17.3.1 Optical Detection 532
17.3.1.1 Flow Analysis Systems 533
17.3.1.2 Flow Sensors 539
17.3.2 Electrochemical Detection 545
17.3.2.1 Non-enzymatic Reaction 546
17.3.2.2 Enzymatic Reaction 546
17.4 Conclusions and Future Trends 548
References 550
18: Residual Pesticides and Heavy Metals Analysis in Food 559
18.1 Introduction 559
18.2 Analytical Chemistry: Historical Notes 560
18.3 Analytical Chemistry: Today and Tomorrow 562
18.4 The Role of Analytical Chemistry in the Development of Chemical Industry 562
18.5 The Role of Analytical Testing in Maintaining Food Safety 563
18.6 Analytical Techniques of Food Analysis 564
18.6.1 Food Sampling 564
18.6.2 Sample Preparation for Pesticide Residues in Food 564
18.6.3 Sample Extraction 566
18.6.3.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE) 566
18.6.3.2 Solid-Phase Extraction 567
18.6.3.3 Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME) 567
18.6.3.4 Matrix Solid-Phase Dispersion (MSPD) 567
18.6.3.5 Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction (DLLME) 569
18.6.3.6 Stir-Bar Sorptive Extraction (SBSE) 569
18.6.3.7 Single-Drop Microextraction (SDME) 570
18.6.3.8 Pressurized Fluid Extraction (PFE) 571
18.6.3.9 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 572
18.6.3.10 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 572
18.6.3.11 The QuEChERS Method 573
18.6.4 Sample Cleanup 574
18.6.4.1 Solid-Phase Extraction 574
18.6.4.2 Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction 575
18.6.4.3 Gel Permeation Chromatography 575
18.6.5 Measurement 576
18.6.5.1 Evolution of Methodologies 576
18.6.5.2 Recent Techniques of Pesticide Analysis 577
18.7 Analysis of Heavy Metals in Food 579
18.7.1 Sample Preparation for Heavy Metal Analyses 579
18.7.2 Common Analytical Devices Used in Heavy Metal Analyses 579
18.8 Present Challenges and New Directions in Food Analysis 583
18.9 Conclusion 584
References 585
19: Microarray Methodologies for Pesticides and Other Toxins in Foods 593
19.1 Introduction 593
19.2 Fabrication and Sensing Strategy in Microarray 594
19.2.1 Solid Supporting Materials 594
19.2.2 Surface Treatment 595
19.2.3 Detection Methods 596
19.3 Microarray-Based Analysis of Pesticides 596
19.4 Microarray-Based Analysis of Toxic Contaminates 599
19.4.1 Microarray-Based Analysis of a Single Biotoxin 599
19.4.2 Microarray-Based Analysis of Multiple Biotoxins 603
19.4.3 Microarray-Based Analysis of a Single Heavy Metal Ion 607
19.4.4 Microarray-Based Analysis of Multiple Heavy Metal Ions 609
19.5 Conclusion 609
References 610
Section V: Quality Assurance and Regulatory Development 615
20: Accreditation, a Key Recognition for the Analysis of Food Toxins and Contaminants 617
20.1 Introduction 617
20.2 What Is Accreditation 619
20.3 Quality Infrastructure of an Economy 620
20.4 Accreditation Body 623
20.5 Procedure for Assessing and Accrediting Laboratories 624
20.6 Scope of Accreditation 625
20.7 Requirements for Laboratory Accreditation 626
20.8 Laboratory Environment 628
20.9 Equipment Control 628
20.10 Metrological Traceability 629
20.11 Measurement Uncertainty 631
20.12 Method Validation 634
20.13 Quality Assurance of Analytical Results 635
20.14 Proficiency Testing 636
20.15 International and Regional Accreditation Cooperation Bodies 637
20.16 Benefits of Accreditation 639
20.17 Conclusion 640
References 640
21: Quality Assurance and Control for Accurate Measurement of Food Toxins 643
21.1 Introduction 643
21.2 Toxin Controls 646
21.3 Measurement of Natural Food Toxins 647
21.3.1 Sampling 648
21.3.2 Quality Control of Test Methods 648
21.3.2.1 Mycotoxins 648
21.3.2.2 Histamine 650
21.3.2.3 Ergot and Lectins 650
21.3.3 Method Development 650
21.3.3.1 The Basic Protocol 651
21.3.3.2 Guidance on Implementation 655
21.3.3.3 Authorisation 657
21.3.3.4 Choice of Component Procedures 657
21.3.3.5 Method Validation 657
21.3.3.6 Records and Results 657
21.3.3.7 Reference Documents 657
21.3.3.8 Proformas 657
21.3.4 Standard Operating Procedure 657
21.3.5 Calibration and Quantification 658
21.3.6 Calculations 658
21.3.7 Interpretation 658
21.3.8 Citing References 658
21.3.9 Quality Assurance 659
21.4 Validation Techniques 659
21.5 Conclusion 659
References 660
22: Analytical Methods and Development of Reference Materials for Toxic Metals and Metal Species in Food and Dietary Supplements 661
22.1 Introduction 661
22.2 Available Reference Materials 663
22.2.1 Production and Use of In-house Reference Materials 668
22.3 Arsenic and Arsenic Species 668
22.3.1 Sources and Occurrences in Foods and Dietary Supplements 670
22.3.2 Methods for Analyzing Arsenic and Arsenic Species 672
22.3.3 Toxicity of Arsenic Species 673
22.3.4 Regulations on Arsenic in Food 673
22.3.5 Reference Materials 674
22.4 Cadmium and Lead 674
22.4.1 Cadmium in the Food Chain 674
22.4.2 Lead in the Food Chain 675
22.4.3 Measurement of Cadmium and Lead in Food and Dietary Supplements 676
22.4.3.1 Sample Digestion 676
22.4.3.2 Contamination Control 677
22.4.3.3 Spectral and Non-Spectral Interferences 677
22.4.3.4 Quantification Strategies 678
22.5 Mercury and Organo-Mercury in Food and Dietary Supplements 679
22.5.1 Global and Environmental Sources 680
22.5.2 Sources/Occurrences in Foods and Dietary Supplements 682
22.5.3 Toxicity, Health Implications and Regulatory Limits 684
22.5.4 Methods for Analyzing Mercury and Mercury Species in Food and Supplements 685
22.5.5 Reference Materials for Mercury and Mercury Species in Food and Supplements 686
22.6 Conclusions 687
Disclaimer 688
References 688
23: Overview of Toxins and Toxicants in Food and Their Regulatory Limits 701
23.1 Introduction 701
23.1.1 Historical Background to the Development of Legislation and Regulatory Limits Relating to Toxins and Toxicants in Food 701
23.1.2 FAO/WHO and the Codex Alimentarius 704
23.1.2.1 Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed 704
23.1.2.2 Global Food Legislation, Standards and Regulatory Limits 705
23.2 Microbial Foodborne Pathogens and Toxins 706
23.2.1 Range of Microbial Hazards (Toxins, Toxicants and Pathogens) 706
23.2.2 Mycotoxins 707
23.2.2.1 The Development of Regulatory Standards for Mycotoxins 707
23.2.2.2 Codex Standards for Mycotoxins 709
23.2.2.3 Mycotoxins Standards Worldwide 709
23.3 Plant Toxins 709
23.3.1 Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids 712
23.3.1.1 In Honey and Bee Products 712
23.3.1.2 In Food Supplements, Herbal Teas and Herbal Remedies 713
23.3.1.3 In Other Sources 713
23.3.1.4 Regulatory Limits for PAs in Food 713
23.3.2 Cyanogenic Glycosides 714
23.3.2.1 International Regulatory Limits Relating to Cyanogenic Glycosides 714
23.3.2.2 Australia and New Zealand Survey on Cyanogenic Glycosides 714
23.3.3 Glycoalkaloids 714
23.3.4 Other Plant-Derived Toxins 715
23.3.4.1 Tropane Alkaloids 715
23.3.4.2 Kava Kava (Piper methysticum) 715
23.3.4.3 Aristolochic Acid 715
23.3.5 Mushroom and Toadstool Toxins 716
23.3.5.1 Mushroom Toxins and Their Toxic Effects 716
23.3.5.2 Regulatory Limits for Mushroom Toxins 716
23.4 Phycotoxins/Marine Biotoxins 716
23.4.1 Overview 716
23.4.2 Worldwide Legislative Standards 718
23.4.3 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) 719
23.4.4 Tetrodotoxins 719
23.4.4.1 Occurrence of Tetrodotoxin 719
23.4.4.2 Regulatory Limits for TTX 720
23.4.5 New Risks 720
23.5 Biogenic Amines and Common Food Toxicants/Allergens 720
23.5.1 Biogenic Amines 720
23.5.2 Common Food Toxicants 721
23.5.2.1 Heavy Metals 722
23.5.2.2 Pesticides 723
23.5.3 Allergens 724
23.6 Conclusions 724
References 725
24: Food Allergy: Managing Food Allergens 733
24.1 Introduction 733
24.2 What Is Food Allergy? 733
24.2.1 Allergen Nomenclature 735
24.2.2 Prevalence 735
24.2.3 Anaphylaxis 738
24.2.4 Severity of Allergic Reaction 739
24.2.5 Quality of Life 740
24.3 Is There a Cure for Food Allergy? 740
24.3.1 Prevention of Food Allergy 741
24.4 Food Allergen Management 742
24.4.1 Processing 743
24.4.2 Precautionary Allergen Labelling 744
24.5 Basic Toxicology 745
24.6 Reference Doses, Action Limits and Thresholds 749
24.6.1 Deterministic Allergen Risk Assessment 752
24.6.2 Probabilistic Allergen Risk Assessment 754
24.6.3 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats 755
24.6.3.1 Strengths 756
24.6.3.2 Weaknesses 757
24.6.3.3 Opportunities 757
24.6.3.4 Threats 757
24.7 Conclusion 758
Acknowledgements 758
References 759
Index 765
End User License Agreement 789
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 3.7.2017 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie |
| Technik ► Lebensmitteltechnologie | |
| Weitere Fachgebiete ► Land- / Forstwirtschaft / Fischerei | |
| Schlagworte | Analysis • Analytical Chemistry • Analytische Chemie • Botulism • Chemie • Chemistry • Chromatography • detection • fish and shellfish safety • food-chemistry • Food Safety • Food Science & Technology • Food-Toxins • Forensics • grocery recall • known Pathogens • Lebensmittelforschung u. -technologie • marine toxins • Microbiology, Food Safety & Security • Mikrobiologie u. Nahrungsmittelsicherheit • Pesticide toxicity • Poison Plants • Quality assurance • Salmonella • Textbook • Toxicant • Toxicology • Toxikologie |
| ISBN-10 | 1-118-99271-7 / 1118992717 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-1-118-99271-5 / 9781118992715 |
| Informationen gemäß Produktsicherheitsverordnung (GPSR) | |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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