Fundamental of Nuclear Engineering is derived from over 25 years of teaching undergraduate and graduate courses on nuclear engineering. The material has been extensively class tested and provides the most comprehensive textbook and reference on the fundamentals of nuclear engineering. It includes a broad range of important areas in the nuclear engineering field; nuclear and atomic theory; nuclear reactor physics, design, control/dynamics, safety and thermal-hydraulics; nuclear fuel engineering; and health physics/radiation protection. It also includes the latest information that is missing in traditional texts, such as space radiation. The aim of the book is to provide a source for upper level undergraduate and graduate students studying nuclear engineering.
BRENT J. LEWIS, Royal Military College of Canada
E. NIHAN ONDER, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
ANDREW A. PRUDIL, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
Fundamental of Nuclear Engineering is derived from over 25 years of teaching undergraduate and graduate courses on nuclear engineering. The material has been extensively class tested and provides the most comprehensive textbook and reference on the fundamentals of nuclear engineering. It includes a broad range of important areas in the nuclear engineering field; nuclear and atomic theory; nuclear reactor physics, design, control/dynamics, safety and thermal-hydraulics; nuclear fuel engineering; and health physics/radiation protection. It also includes the latest information that is missing in traditional texts, such as space radiation. The aim of the book is to provide a source for upper level undergraduate and graduate students studying nuclear engineering.
BRENT J. LEWIS, Royal Military College of Canada E. NIHAN ONDER, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories ANDREW A. PRUDIL, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
Cover???????????????????????? 1
Title Page?????????????????????????????????? 5
Copyright???????????????????????????????? 6
Contents?????????????????????????????? 7
Preface???????????????????????????? 17
Acknowledgements?????????????????????????????????????????????? 19
About the Companion Website???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 21
Prologue 23
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 23
Organization of the book?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 24
Chapter 1 Atomic and Nuclear Theory???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 31
1.1 Historical Review???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 31
1.2 Models of the Nucleus???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 32
1.2.1 Field Unification Theories?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 32
1.2.2 Nuclear Composition and Stability???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 35
1.2.3 Mass-energy Relationships???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 39
1.2.4 Decay Schemes???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 42
1.2.5 Nuclear Models?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 45
1.2.5.1 Nuclear Shell Model???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 46
1.2.5.2 Parity?????????????????????????????????????????? 48
1.2.5.3 Extreme Single Particle Shell Model???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 49
1.2.6 Nuclear Transformations???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 51
1.2.6.1 Gamma Transitions???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 52
1.2.6.2 Beta Transitions?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 54
1.2.6.3 Alpha Decay???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 57
1.2.7 The Fission Process???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 60
1.2.7.1 Spontaneous Fission???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 60
1.2.7.2 Equal Charge Displacement (ECD) Model for Fission Products?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 61
1.2.8 Nuclear Reactions???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 63
1.2.9 Cross-sections and Neutron Activation Reactions???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 64
1.2.9.1 Rates of Reaction???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 67
1.2.9.2 Scattering Cross-section?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 70
Bibliography?????????????????????????????????????? 70
Exercises???????????????????????????????? 70
Problems?????????????????????????????? 71
Chapter 2 Nuclear Reactor Design and Physics?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 75
2.1 Overall Concept and Description of Nuclear Reactors???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 75
2.1.1 Brief Summary of Types of Reactor???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 76
2.1.1.1 Light Water Reactors?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 78
2.1.1.2 Heavy Water Reactors?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 81
2.1.2 Small Nuclear Power Reactors?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 82
2.1.3 Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 84
2.1.4 Generation IV Designs???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 87
2.2 Neutron Diffusion???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 93
2.3 Slowing Down of Neutrons?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 97
2.3.0.1 Slowing Down of Neutrons in an Infinite (No Leakage) Non-absorbing (No Fuel) Media?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 101
2.3.0.2 Slowing Down in Infinite (No Leakage) Media with Capture?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 103
2.3.1 Fermi Age Equation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 103
2.3.2 Solution of the Fermi Age Equation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 104
2.4 Criticality and the Steady State?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 108
2.4.1 The Critical Equation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 112
2.4.1.1 One-group Critical Equation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 112
2.4.1.2 Modified One-group Critical Equation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 113
2.4.1.3 Two-group Critical Equation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 113
2.4.1.4 Fermi Age Critical Equation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 114
2.4.1.5 Calculation of Buckling???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 115
2.4.1.6 Calculation of Critical Size and Composition?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 115
2.4.2 Reflector???????????????????????????????????????????? 116
2.4.2.1 One-group Diffusion Method?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 117
2.5 Advanced Reactor Physics?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 118
2.5.1 Derivation of the Neutron Transport Equation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 119
2.5.1.1 Neutron Scattering?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 120
2.5.1.2 Neutron Losses Due to Absorption?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 121
2.5.1.3 Neutron Production from Fission???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 121
2.5.1.4 Loss of Neutrons by Streaming from the Volume???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 121
2.5.1.5 Other Neutron Sources???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 122
2.5.1.6 Combining to Obtain the Neutron Transport Equation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 122
2.5.2 Approximations to the Transport Equation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 123
2.5.2.1 Time Independent Formulation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 123
2.5.2.2 Multiple Energy Group Approximation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 123
2.5.2.3 Neutron Diffusion Equation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 124
2.5.3 Solution of the Transport and Diffusion Equations???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 128
2.5.3.1 Deterministic Methods???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 128
2.5.3.2 Cell and Lattice Method???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 128
2.5.3.3 Single-group Neutron Diffusion Equation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 129
2.5.3.4 Multigroup Neutron Diffusion Equation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 129
2.5.3.5 Monte-Carlo Methods???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 131
2.5.3.6 Perturbation Theory and the Adjoint Flux?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 132
Bibliography?????????????????????????????????????? 136
Exercises???????????????????????????????? 137
Problems?????????????????????????????? 137
Chapter 3 Nuclear Reactor Dynamics and Control?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 142
3.1 Overview of Reactor Kinetics Behaviour?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 142
3.1.0.1 Prompt Critical State???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 146
3.1.0.2 Prompt Jump (or Drop)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 146
3.2 Point Reactor Model and the Inhour Equation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 147
3.2.0.1 Inhour Equation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 150
3.2.0.2 One-delayed Neutron Group???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 152
3.2.0.3 Prompt Jump Approximation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 153
3.2.0.4 Dynamics of Space-Time Kinetic Equations?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 154
3.2.1 Reactivity Effects and Poisoning?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 157
3.2.1.1 Effect of Temperature and Voids on Reactivity???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 158
3.2.1.2 Temperature Coefficient of Reactivity???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 158
3.2.1.3 Void Coefficient?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 160
3.3 Reactor Control???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 160
3.3.0.1 Control Rods?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 162
3.3.0.2 Cluster and Cruciform Rods?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 163
3.3.0.3 Partially-inserted Control Rods???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 166
3.3.0.4 Zone Controllers?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 166
3.3.0.5 Chemical Shim and Burnable Poisons?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 166
3.3.0.6 Burnable Poisons?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 168
3.4 Nuclear Fuel Management???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 168
3.4.0.1 Isotopic Composition of Fuel?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 168
3.4.1 Isotope Concentrations and Depletion Equations?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 169
3.4.1.1 Plutonium Skin Effect???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 173
3.4.1.2 High-purity Isotopic Production (239Pu)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 174
3.4.2 Production of Fission Products?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 176
3.4.3 Effect of Burnup on Reactivity?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 178
3.4.3.1 Fission Product Effect on Reactivity?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 178
3.4.3.2 Xenon (Xe-135) Poisoning?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 179
3.4.3.3 Samarium (Sm-149) Poisoning???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 181
3.4.3.4 239Pu Peak and Fuel Reactivity?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 182
3.4.4 Thorium Depletion Equations???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 184
3.4.5 Refueling Scheme Optimization???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 187
3.4.5.1 Constraints???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 187
3.4.5.2 On-power Refueling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 188
3.4.5.3 Batch Refueling???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 190
Bibliography?????????????????????????????????????? 190
Exercises???????????????????????????????? 191
Problems?????????????????????????????? 191
Chapter 4 Nuclear Reactor Materials and Fuel Engineering?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 196
4.1 Nuclear Reactor Materials???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 196
4.1.1 Fuel Material Properties?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 208
4.1.1.1 Metal Fuels???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 208
4.1.1.2 Ceramic Fuels: Oxides???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 210
4.1.1.3 Ceramic Fuels: Carbides???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 211
4.1.1.4 Ceramic Fuels: Nitrides???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 211
4.1.1.5 Composite Fuels???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 211
4.1.2 Structural Material Properties?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 212
4.1.3 Irradiation Effects on Materials?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 212
4.1.3.1 Energy Deposition Causing Radiolysis and Defect Creation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 212
4.1.4 Corrosion and Materials Degradation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 218
4.1.4.1 Corrosion in Gas-Cooled Systems???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 218
4.1.4.2 Corrosion in Water-Cooled Systems???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 218
4.1.4.3 Flow-Accelerated Corrosion?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 220
4.1.4.4 Galvanic Corrosion?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 220
4.1.4.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 220
4.1.4.6 Crevice Corrosion???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 221
4.1.4.7 Other Material Degradation Effects?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 221
4.2 Fuel Production???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 224
4.2.1 The Fuel Cycle?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 224
4.2.2 Sources of Reactor Fuel Materials???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 225
4.2.2.1 Nuclear Fuel Materials?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 225
4.2.3 Fuel Production???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 227
4.2.3.1 Uranium???????????????????????????????????????????? 227
4.2.3.2 Thorium???????????????????????????????????????????? 231
4.2.4 Fuel Fabrication?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 231
4.2.4.1 Uranium Metal???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 231
4.2.4.2 Uranium Dioxide???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 231
4.2.5 Uranium Isotope Enrichment?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 234
4.2.5.1 Gaseous Diffusion???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 236
4.2.5.2 Gas Centrifuge?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 237
4.2.5.3 Laser Methods???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 239
4.2.6 Reprocessing of Spent Fuel?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 239
4.2.6.1 Solvent Extraction Method???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 239
4.3 Fuel Element Thermal Performance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 240
4.3.1 Heat Generation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 240
4.3.1.1 Distribution of Heat Generation in a Reactor Core???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 243
4.3.1.2 Power Peaking Factor?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 245
4.3.1.3 Heat Generation within a Fuel Element in a Heterogeneous Core (Cylindrical Reactor)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 246
4.3.1.4 Heat Generation During Shutdown???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 247
4.3.1.5 Fission Rate?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 248
4.3.2 Fuel Material Properties?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 248
4.3.2.1 Thermal Conductivity Theory???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 248
4.3.2.2 Effects on Thermal Conductivity???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 251
4.3.2.3 Correlations of Fuel Thermal Properties???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 252
4.3.3 Temperature Profiles in Cylindrical Rods?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 258
4.3.3.1 Fuel Surface Temperature?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 260
4.4 Fuel Chemistry?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 262
4.4.1 Phase Diagrams?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 262
4.4.2 Defect Structures of Oxides???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 265
4.4.3 Oxygen Potential of the Fuel?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 266
4.4.4 Fuel Vaporization???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 268
4.4.4.1 Actinide Redistribution???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 268
4.5 Fuel Restructuring?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 270
4.5.1 Pore Migration?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 270
4.5.2 Columnar-Grain Growth???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 271
4.5.3 Equiaxed-Grain Growth???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 272
4.6 Fission Product Behaviour???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 274
4.6.1 Elemental Yields of Fission Products?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 275
4.6.2 Physical State of Fission Products?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 278
4.6.2.1 Chemical State of Fission Products?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 278
4.6.2.2 Fission Product Migration???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 285
4.6.2.3 Effect of Burnup?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 286
4.6.2.4 Fuel Swelling Due to Solid Fission Products???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 286
4.6.3 Swelling Due to Fission Gases???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 288
4.6.3.1 Number of Gas Atoms in a Bubble???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 290
4.6.3.2 Swelling Due to Gas Bubbles and Overall Gas Balance???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 293
4.6.3.3 Growth of Stationary Bubbles?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 293
4.6.3.4 Bubble Growth by Coalescence?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 294
4.6.4 Fission Gas Release???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 296
4.6.4.1 Recoil Release?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 297
4.6.4.2 Knockout Release?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 298
4.6.4.3 Diffusional Release???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 299
4.6.4.4 Gas Release Due to Bubble Interconnection???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 303
4.6.4.5 Sweeping of Gas Bubbles by Grain Boundaries???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 306
4.7 Fuel Performance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 307
4.7.1 Fuel Defect Mechanisms?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 307
4.7.1.1 CANDU Reactors?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 307
4.7.1.2 Light Water Reactors?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 309
4.7.1.3 Power Ramp Failures???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 310
4.7.2 Fuel Performance Codes?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 312
4.7.2.1 Canadian Codes?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 312
4.7.2.2 International Codes???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 312
References?????????????????????????????????? 319
Exercises???????????????????????????????? 328
Problems?????????????????????????????? 332
Chapter 5 Thermal Hydraulics?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 336
5.1 Choice of Coolant???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 336
5.2 Definitions and Simple Two-Phase Flow Relationships???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 337
5.3 Two-Phase Flow?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 340
5.3.1 Flow Pattern Maps and Transition of Flow Patterns???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 343
5.3.1.1 Transition of Flow Patterns in a Vertical Flow?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 343
5.3.1.2 Transition of Flow Patterns in a Horizontal Flow?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 345
5.3.2 Void Fraction???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 345
5.3.2.1 Definition and Relationship???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 345
5.3.2.2 Flow Pattern Transitions Based on Void Fractions?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 347
5.3.2.3 Void Fraction Correlations?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 347
5.3.3 Single- and Two-Phase Conservation Equations?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 352
5.3.3.1 Single-Phase Conservation Equations???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 352
5.3.3.2 Two-Phase Flow Conservation Equations???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 358
5.4 Pressure Drop???????????????????????????????????????????????? 365
5.4.1 Single-Phase Pressure Drop?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 367
5.4.1.1 Friction Factor???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 369
5.4.1.2 Single-Phase Local Losses???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 372
5.4.2 Two-Phase Pressure Drop???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 372
5.4.2.1 Two-Phase Frictional Pressure Drop?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 375
5.4.2.2 Two-Phase Form Losses for Different Pipe Fixtures???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 392
5.5 Heat Transfer???????????????????????????????????????????????? 402
5.5.1 Single-Phase Forced Convective Heat Transfer?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 418
5.5.1.1 Viscous Flow?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 419
5.5.1.2 Boundary Layer?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 422
5.5.1.3 Forced Convection Over a Plate (External Flow)?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 430
5.5.1.4 Forced Convection in a Pipe (Internal Flow)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 438
5.5.1.5 Forced Convection in Non-Circular Pipes and Rod Bundles???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 449
5.5.2 Single-Phase Natural Convective Heat Transfer???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 464
5.5.2.1 Natural Convection Over a Plate???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 468
5.5.2.2 Empirical Natural Convective Heat Transfer Correlations for Various Geometries?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 475
5.5.3 Fundamentals of Phase Change and Boiling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 478
5.5.3.1 Phase Change?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 478
5.5.3.2 Classification of Boiling???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 482
5.5.3.3 Pool and Forced Convective Boiling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 482
5.5.4 Subcooled Boiling???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 485
5.5.4.1 Forced Convection???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 485
5.5.4.2 Pool Boiling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 496
5.5.5 Saturated Nucleate Boiling and Forced Convective Evaporation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 496
5.5.5.1 Forced Convection???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 496
5.5.5.2 Pool Boiling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 510
5.5.6 Critical Heat Flux?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 512
5.5.6.1 CHF Mechanisms for Forced Convective Boiling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 516
5.5.6.2 Parametric Trends???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 519
5.5.6.3 CHF Prediction Methods for Forced Convective Boiling in Tubes???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 526
5.5.6.4 Separate Effects?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 538
5.5.6.5 CHF Prediction Methods for Forced Convective Boiling in Rod Bundles???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 545
5.5.6.6 Pool Boiling CHF?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 546
5.5.7 Post-Critical Heat Flux???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 551
5.5.7.1 Transition Boiling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 552
5.5.7.2 Minimum Film Boiling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 553
5.5.7.3 Film Boiling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 556
5.5.7.4 Pool Film Boiling???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 574
5.5.8 Condensation?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 577
5.5.8.1 Filmwise Condensation in Vertical Tubes???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 578
5.5.8.2 Filmwise Condensation in Horizontal Tubes???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 579
5.5.8.3 Dropwise Condensation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 581
5.5.8.4 Non-Condensable Gases???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 581
References?????????????????????????????????? 581
Exercises???????????????????????????????? 592
Chapter 6 Nuclear Reactor Safety?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 595
6.1 Reactor Licensing and Regulation?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 595
6.1.1 CANDU Safety Philosophy???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 595
6.1.2 Licensing Process in the United States?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 602
6.1.3 Civilian/Military Regulation in Other Countries???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 607
6.2 General Principles of Reactor Safety?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 608
6.2.1 Three Levels of Safety?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 608
6.2.2 Multiple Barriers???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 609
6.2.3 Reactor Protection System???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 610
6.3 Engineered Safety Features?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 612
6.3.1 Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS)?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 612
6.3.2 Containment Systems???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 614
6.3.3 Hydrogen Control?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 616
6.4 Reactor Safety Analysis???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 619
6.4.1 Loss-of-Coolant Accident (LOCA)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 619
6.4.2 Thermal Hydraulic and Heat Removal Analyses???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 625
6.4.2.1 Nuclear Heat Transport?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 625
6.4.2.2 Boiling Heat Transfer???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 633
6.4.2.3 Blowdown Modelling?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 635
6.4.3 Evaluation Computer Codes???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 640
6.4.3.1 Example of Codes?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 641
6.5 Reliability and Risk Assessment???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 641
6.5.1 Risk Determination in Nuclear Plants?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 644
6.6 Nuclear Reactor Accidents???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 646
6.6.1 Civilian Reactor Accidents?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 647
6.6.1.1 Three Mile Island (TMI) - Unit 2?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 649
6.6.1.2 Chernobyl - Unit 4?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 651
6.6.1.3 Fukushima Accident?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 656
6.6.1.4 Activity Release in Accidents???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 662
6.6.2 Nuclear-Powered Submarine Accidents???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 662
6.7 Radiation Dose Calculations???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 662
6.7.1 Radiation Exposure Pathways???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 662
6.7.2 Standards of Radiation Protection???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 664
6.7.3 Meteorology and the Dispersion of Effluents???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 667
6.7.4 Diffusion of Effluents?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 668
6.7.4.1 Effect of Deposition/Fallout and Radioactive Decay?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 674
6.7.5 Radiation Doses from Radioactive Effluents?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 675
6.7.5.1 Whole-Body Dose: External Dose from Plume???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 675
6.7.5.2 Internal Inhalation Dose: Thyroid Dose?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 676
6.7.5.3 Doses from Ground-Deposited Radionuclides???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 679
6.7.5.4 Direct Gamma-Ray Dose???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 681
6.8 Nuclear Emergency Response?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 681
6.8.1 Accident Classification???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 682
6.8.2 Dose Projections?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 683
6.8.2.1 Urgent Phase?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 683
6.8.2.2 Late Phase?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 686
6.9 Fission Product Release and Severe Core Damage Phenomena?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 691
6.9.1 Source Term Overview?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 691
6.9.2 Fission Product Release???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 696
6.9.2.1 Containment Release of Fission Products???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 701
6.9.3 Severe Accident Behaviour???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 708
6.9.3.1 Severe Core Damage Phenomena?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 713
6.9.3.2 Stages of Severe Accident Behaviour???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 716
6.9.3.3 Summary of Key Phenomenological Issues?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 720
References?????????????????????????????????? 720
Exercises???????????????????????????????? 725
Problems?????????????????????????????? 728
Chapter 7 Health Physics and Radiation Protection???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 733
7.1 Interaction of Radiation with Matter?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 733
7.1.1 Charged Particles???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 733
7.1.1.1 Baryons (Charged Particles: ??????, p, d, t, 3He, Fission Fragments) 733
7.1.1.2 Specific Ionization???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 735
7.1.1.3 Fission Products?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 738
7.1.1.4 Leptons (Light Charged Particles: Electrons, ??????-) 738
7.1.1.5 Range-Energy Relationships?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 740
7.1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 740
7.1.2.1 Linear and Mass Attenuation Coefficients?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 745
7.1.2.2 Energy Transfer???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 745
7.1.2.3 Range???????????????????????????????????????? 750
7.1.3 Neutral Particles: Neutrons???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 750
7.1.3.1 Elastic and Inelastic Interactions?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 750
7.1.3.2 Capture and Spallation Interactions???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 751
7.2 Health Physics and Radiation Protection???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 752
7.2.1 Doses and Units???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 752
7.2.1.1 Irradiation Intensity or Irradiation Rate???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 753
7.2.1.2 Radiation Other than Photons?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 754
7.2.1.3 Biological Factors?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 754
7.2.2 Radiological Protection???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 758
7.2.2.1 Historical Perspective?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 759
7.2.2.2 Protection Quantities???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 760
7.2.2.3 Radiation Weighting???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 760
7.2.2.4 Operational Quantities?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 761
7.2.2.5 Determination of Absorbed Dose Distributions in the Human Body?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 764
7.2.2.6 Conversion Coefficients???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 765
7.2.2.7 Relationships Between Protection and Operational Quantities???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 765
7.2.2.8 Standards of Radiation Protection???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 765
7.2.2.9 Estimates of Probability?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 767
7.2.2.10 Types of Occupational Exposure???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 771
7.2.3 Dosimetry???????????????????????????????????????????? 772
7.2.4 Microdosimetry?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 777
7.2.4.1 Microdosimetric Quantities and Distributions?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 780
7.2.4.2 Calculation of Microdosimetric Spectra?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 785
7.3 Biological Effects of Radiation???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 785
7.3.1 Biodosimetry?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 795
7.3.2 Safety Norms?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 797
7.3.2.1 Secondary Norms???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 798
7.3.2.2 Irradiation by Contact and Internal Contamination???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 799
7.3.2.3 Maximum Allowable Activity in Air (in uCi cm-3)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 800
7.4 Radiation Protection?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 801
7.4.1 Time?????????????????????????????????? 804
7.4.2 Distance?????????????????????????????????????????? 805
7.4.3 Shielding???????????????????????????????????????????? 805
7.4.3.1 Plane Circular Source???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 806
7.4.3.2 Cylindrical Source?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 807
7.5 Contamination Treatment???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 810
7.6 Space Radiation???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 810
7.6.1 Space Crew Exposure on Mir and the ISS?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 816
7.6.2 Dose Determination Approach???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 821
References?????????????????????????????????? 823
Exercises???????????????????????????????? 826
Problems?????????????????????????????? 829
Appendix 1 Physical Constants and Conversion Factors 833
Appendix 2 Table of Atomic Mass Excesses 835
Appendix 3 Some Values of Nuclear Spins and Parities 922
Appendix 4 Reactor Physics Parameters 925
Appendix 5 Physical and Biological Data for Radionuclides 927
Appendix 6 Cross-Sections of Some Radionuclides 929
Appendix 7 Properties of Elements and Some Molecules 931
Appendix 8 Isotopic Cross-Sections 935
Appendix 9 Direct and Cumulative Thermal Fission Product Yields for Various Fissile Isotopes 948
Index???????????????????????? 965
EULA 983
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 24.3.2017 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Physik / Astronomie ► Thermodynamik |
| Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik | |
| Technik ► Maschinenbau | |
| Schlagworte | Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors • atomic theory • CANDU reactor • fuel chemistry • fuel damage • fuel engineering • Fundamental of Nuclear Engineering • fundamentals of nuclear engineering • Generation IV Designs • Health physics • Light Water Reactors • LWRs • Maschinenbau • mechanical engineering • Nuclear Engineering • nuclear fuel engineering • Nuclear Fuel Fabrication • nuclear physics • Nuclear Reactor Control • Nuclear reactor design • nuclear reactor dynamics • Nuclear Reactor Physics • Nuclear Reactor Safety • nuclear theory • Radiation protection • Reactor Accidents • Reactor Design • reactor operation • Reactor Physics • Reactor Safety • Reactor theory • Small Nuclear Power Reactors • SMRs • Space radiation • thermal-hydraulics • thermodynamics • Thermodynamik |
| ISBN-13 | 9781119271543 / 9781119271543 |
| Informationen gemäß Produktsicherheitsverordnung (GPSR) | |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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