Patty's Industrial Hygiene, Evaluation and Control (eBook)

Barbara Cohrssen (Herausgeber)

eBook Download: EPUB

2021 | 7. Auflage
400 Seiten
Wiley (Verlag)
978-1-119-81619-5 (ISBN)

Infos

Since the first edition in 1948, Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology has become a flagship publication for Wiley. During its nearly seven decades in print, it has become a standard reference for the fields of occupational health and toxicology. The volumes on industrial hygiene are cornerstone reference works for not only industrial hygienists but also chemists, engineers, toxicologists, lawyers, and occupational safety personnel.

Volume 3 covers Recognition and Evaluation of Physical Agents and Biohazards. All of the chapters have been updated and a new chapter on Robotics has been added. These subjects are increasing in importance to industrial hygienists.

Autor

Barbara Cohrssen is President of Cohrssen Environmental, Inc. and is a Certified Industrial Hygienist and Registered Environmental Assessor. She co-edited the previous edition of both Patty's Toxicology and Patty's Industrial Hygiene. She has over 30 years of experience in occupational and environmental health and safety.

Inhalt

Contributors vii

Preface ix

Useful Equivalents and Conversion Factors xi

Part III Chemical Exposure Evaluation 1

Biological Monitoring of Exposure to Industrial Chemicals 3
Nancy B. Hopf and Silvia Fustinoni

Real-Time Assessment of Air Contaminants Using Video Exposure Monitoring (VEM) Methods and Techniques 65
James D. McGlothlin, Fan Xu, Sandra S. Cole, and Dave Huizen

Computed Tomography in Industrial Hygiene 95
Lori A. Todd

Mathematical Modeling of Indoor Air Contaminant Concentrations 121
Mark Nicas and Thomas W. Armstrong

Sensor 145
Misti L. Zamora, Christopher Zuidema, and Kirsten Koehler

Part IV Chemical Exposure Control 161

Characterizing Air Contaminant Emission Sources 163
D. Jeff Burton, Robert L. Harris, and Earl W. Arp

Engineering Control of Airborne Contaminants: History, Philosophy, and the Development of Primary Approaches 177
D. Jeff Burton and William A. Burgess

Industrial Ventilation 199
D. Jeff Burton and Robert D. Soule

Respiratory Protective Equipment 225
Craig E. Colton

Chemical Protective Clothing 251
Krister Forsberg and James P. Zeigler

Control Banding: Background, Evolution, and Application 269
David M. Zalk, Elaine West, and Deborah I. Nelson

Occupational Safety and Health Law 307
John Howard and Steven Smith

Index 357

Textauszug

BIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF EXPOSURE TO INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS

NANCY B. HOPF, PH.D. AND SILVIA FUSTINONI, PH.D.

1 INTRODUCTION

Occupational health experts began to monitor workers' chemical exposures by measuring the internal dose of a chemical of interest, which gave a more reliable estimate of total exposures such as lead concentrations in urine (1–3). Other human biomonitoring methods sought to measure a chemical's biotransformations in the body, its metabolites. For instance, urinary sulfate was determined in benzene‐exposed workers (4). Periodically monitoring industry workers who were exposed to especially benzene was recommended, and the aim was to remove workers from the site before symptoms of acute poisoning (such as anemia) appeared.

Quantifying the parent chemical compound or its metabolites – or biomarkers of exposure – in urine and blood is still a widely used biomonitoring approach. The metabolites can, in some instances, be a better measure of toxic exposure than the presence of the compound itself (e.g. quantifying urinary 2,5‐hexandione, the toxic metabolite, to determine hexane exposure). Human biomonitoring uses techniques of analytical chemistry to detect the presence of specific chemicals in human bodily fluids and tissues. This kind of biomonitoring relies on the sensitivity of the chemical assays and instruments, which since the 1960s have become able to measure ever‐smaller amounts of specific substances (2). For example, these techniques can detect one drop of ink in one of the largest tanker trucks used to haul gasoline, which is about one part per billion. Improvements in laboratory technology are driving the popularity of human biomonitoring, as specialists can now detect extremely low levels of multiple markers using a relatively small sample. High precision analytical instruments are used to specifically quantify chemicals or their metabolized residues such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, gas, and liquid chromatography coupled with single or triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, even in the presence of isotopically labeled analogs as internal standards to further improve assay's performance.

Biomarkers that measure bodily alteration such as changes in blood composition to assess a specific disease are known as biomarkers of effect. For instance, changes in blood cell composition profiles were used in order to protect hospital workers in radium units from radioactive exposures in the 1920s. Blood cell changes were known to precede radiation‐induced diseases such as aplastic anemia. Back then, the British X‐ray and Radium Protection Committee recommended that radium units in hospitals adopt in‐house blood monitoring programs to reduce the occurrence of aplastic anemia among exposed workers. This biomonitoring approach was later abandoned for a far easier radiation exposure‐monitoring program where workers wear dosimeters attached to their clothing. Radiation‐induced damage in individuals was later measured using genetic testing or the determination of condensed chromosomes – or karyotyping – by way of microscopy. Extensive data on chromosomal aberrations (CAs) in response to ionizing radiation have been provided from studies in survivors of the atomic bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki (5). This chromosome aberration method was later used to monitor uranium miners and workers in the nuclear industry exposed to radiation (6).

Although a biomarker of effect may be related to exposure to a specific chemical, it is more closely related to the occurrence of an adverse health effect (7). Damage to genetic material (chromosomes or DNA) or other molecular alterations (e.g. adducts) that are chemically induced by exposure are used to survey workers at risk. For instance, occupational exposure to the sterilizing agent ethylene oxide can be monitored with a detectable chemical modification of the hemoglobin molecules in their blood namely the N‐(2‐hydroxyethyl)valine (HEV) hemoglobin adduct. Another example is lead's ability to induce anemia by inhibition of heme synthesis. Lead inhibits delta‐Aminolevulinate dehydratase (ALAD), the second enzyme in the heme biosynthesis pathway. ALAD is a zinc metalloenzyme, and its inhibition by lead substitution for zinc is one of the most sensitive indicators of blood‐lead accumulation, a measure of recent lead exposure (8). Cytogenetic alterations in cultured peripheral blood lymphocytes, such as CAs and sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs), are used as biomarkers of effects to assess risk from exposures to carcinogens (9). Micronuclei (MN) present in cultured human cells are a measure of genotoxic exposure, and this biomarker of effect is predictive for cancer (10, 11). It is important to note that determining the actual biological damage might potentially be more informative than a simple exposure level but also note that individuals will vary in their susceptibility to such damage.

Biomarkers of exposure generally give a picture of a worker's current exposure while biomarkers of effect reflect chronic exposures. For instance, lead concentration in blood is a measure of current exposure while lead in bone is a reflection of cumulative exposures (12). Exposure biomarkers fluctuate with an individual's exposure. Exposure biomarkers reflect both absorption and the compound's apparent elimination half‐life in the body. It is, therefore, pertinent to collect the blood or urine sample at maximum exposure to avoid underestimating the body burden. This is not the case for biomarkers of effect where the sampling time is generally not critical. Exceptions to this general overview exist such as carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin.

Exposure biomarkers are used to integrate skin exposure, as measurements of airborne contaminants in the workplace fail to register other routes than inhalation exposure. Skin patches have been used to monitor potential skin exposure but this method does not take into account skin absorption. A biomarker of exposure can assess the bioavailability of the chemical and consequently, the body burden can be determined. Biomonitoring is also used to assess the efficiency of personal protective equipment (PPE). For example, workers wearing PPE to protect themselves from agents that are readily absorbed through the skin might become exposed because of a nonvisible tear in a glove. This breach in protection can only be monitored through biomarkers of exposure.

Human biological monitoring is a powerful tool for assessing human systemic exposure to hazardous substances by inhalation, ingestion, and absorption through the skin. Regular monitoring helps to reassure workers their exposure continues to be well controlled (13). Irreversible biochemical and functional changes are consequently not recommended as biomarkers for exposure monitoring because abnormal values already indicate a health injury that is supposed to be prevented by the monitoring.

At work, reducing exposure to toxic chemicals and their health effects can be implemented with biological monitoring programs and by comparing results to biological limit values (BLVs). The initiative in promulgating BLVs for biomarkers started in the 1970s. In the US, this movement was initiated by the organization for professional industrial hygienists; the American Conference for Governmental Industrial Hygiene (ACGIH), and in Europe, by the German Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the workplace (MAK commission) of the German Research Association (DFG or Deutsche Forschung Gemeinschaft). Since then, both ACGIH and DFG have published their yearly list of BLVs where BLVs are updated and/or new ones added. EU and its Scientific Committee on Occupational Limit values (SCOEL) continued this initiative. In addition, several countries have their own commissions and set country‐specific biological exposure limit values such as France, Finland, and Japan.

Expansion of biomonitoring beyond occupational health to the population at large started in the mid‐1920s with the health hazards of tetraethyl lead (gasoline additive). Studies showed that blood lead levels measured in healthy babies were above the industry standard, and individuals living in urban areas had higher blood lead concentrations than residents of rural areas (14). This knowledge eventually led environmental protection agency (EPA) to ban tetraethyl lead in automotive fuel. Biological monitoring strategies for population‐based studies differ from occupational studies. The exposure source is generally known in the occupational but not in the general population setting. Exposures are during work hours while the exposure time is often unknown for nonoccupationally exposed individuals. Work exposures are generally greater during fixed times while the general population might be exposed to low concentrations over longer periods. This chapter will only include occupational biological monitoring strategies.

This chapter will discuss biomarkers suitable for monitoring of occupational exposures, sampling strategy, how policy makers assess and manage the risk of exposure to chemicals at the workplace. This chapter will also touch upon the ethical issues associated with biomonitoring such as disclosure of data to whom, and with what kind of medical...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 9.4.2021
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Maschinenbau
• Schlagworte: Arbeitshygiene • Arbeitssicherheit u. Umweltschutz i. d. Chemie • Chemical and Environmental Health and Safety • Chemie • Chemistry • Industrial Chemistry • Industrial Engineering • Industrielle Verfahrenstechnik • Technische u. Industrielle Chemie
• ISBN-10: 1-119-81619-X / 111981619X
• ISBN-13: 978-1-119-81619-5 / 9781119816195