Blick ins Buch

Light Metals 2018 (eBook)

eBook Download: PDF

2018
XXXII, 1637 Seiten
Springer International Publishing (Verlag)
978-3-319-72284-9 (ISBN)

Lese- und Medienproben

Ebook-Leseprobe (PDF)

The Light Metals symposia at the TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition present the most recent developments, discoveries, and practices in primary aluminum science and technology. The annual Light Metals volume has become the definitive reference in the field of aluminum production and related light metal technologies. The 2018 collection includes papers from the following symposia:

1.Alumina and Bauxite

2.Aluminum Alloys, Processing, and Characterization

3.Aluminum Reduction Technology

4.Cast Shop Technology

5. Cast Shop Technology: Energy Joint Session

6. Cast Shop Technology: Fundamentals of Aluminum Alloy Solidification Joint Session

7. Cast Shop Technology: Recycling and Sustainability Joint Session

8. Electrode Technology for Aluminum Production

9. Perfluorocarbon Generation and Emissions from Industrial Processes

10. Scandium Extraction and Use in Aluminum Alloys

About TMS

The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS) is a member-driven international professional society dedicated to fostering the exchange of learning and ideas across the entire range of materials science and engineering, from minerals processing and primary metals production, to basic research and the advanced applications of materials. Included among its nearly 13,000 professional and student members are metallurgical and materials engineers, scientists, researchers, educators, and administrators from more than 70 countries on six continents.

About TMS The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS) is a member-driven international professional society dedicated to fostering the exchange of learning and ideas across the entire range of materials science and engineering, from minerals processing and primary metals production, to basic research and the advanced applications of materials. Included among its nearly 13,000 professional and student members are metallurgical and materials engineers, scientists, researchers, educators, and administrators from more than 70 countries on six continents.

Preface 5
Contents 7
About the Editor 22
Members Through 2018 27
Members Through 2019 27
Members Through 2020 28
Members Through 2021 28
Alumina and Bauxite 29
1 Roasting Pretreatment-Low Temperature Digestion Method for Comprehensive Utilization of High-Sulfur Bauxite 30
Abstract 30
Introduction 30
Experiment 30
Raw Materials 30
Experiment Description and Analytical Procedures 31
Results and Discussion 32
Reaction of Roasting Process 32
The Influence of Roasting Conditions on Desulphurization Performance 32
Effect of Digestion Temperature on Digestion Performance of Raw Bauxite 32
Effect of Caustic Concentration on Digestion Performance of Raw Bauxite 33
Effect of Roasting Temperature on Digestion Performance of Roasted Ore 33
Effect of Digestion Temperature on Digestion Performance of Roasted Ore 33
Effect of Caustic Concentration on Digestion Performance of the Roasted Ore 34
Conclusion 34
Acknowledgements 34
References 34
2 Industrial Experience of New Sinter Hydro-chemical Processing Process at BAZ-SUAL 36
Abstract 36
Introduction 36
The Results of the Tests 37
The Proposed Flowsheet of the New Process 41
Conclusions 42
3 Effect of Sintering Conditions on the Stability of ?-2CaO·SiO2 in High Sodium Carbonate Solution 43
Abstract 43
Introduction 43
Experiment 44
Experimental Apparatus 44
Materials 44
Experiment Procedures 44
Sintering Process 44
Simulated Dissolution Experiment 44
Experimental Results and Discussion 44
Effect of Sintering Temperature on the Stability of ?-2CaO·SiO2 44
Effect of Holding Time on the Stability of ?-2CaO·SiO2 46
Conclusion 47
Acknowledgements 47
References 47
4 Research on Impurity Removal of Low Grade Bauxite 49
Abstract 49
Introduction 49
Experiments 49
Materials 49
Procedure 50
Results and Discussion 50
Soluble Potassium of Bauxite 50
Effect of H2SO4 Concentration 51
Effect of Reaction Temperature 51
Effect of Reaction Time 52
Effect of Sulfuric Acid to Bauxite Ratio 52
Treated Bauxite 52
Conclusion 53
References 53
5 Study on the Structure and Generation Mechanism of Intermediate (6AlO–OH) in Decomposition Process of Sodium Aluminate Solutions 54
Abstract 54
Introduction 54
Experimental 55
Solutions Preparation 55
Raman Spectroscopy 55
Computational Details 55
Results and Discussion 55
Raman Spectra of Sodium Aluminate Solutions 55
Structure and Generation Mechanism of Intermediate (6AlO–OH) 55
Molecular Electrostatic Potential 57
Conclusions 57
Acknowledgements 58
References 58
6 The Properties of Superfine ATH Precipitated by Carbonation Method 60
Abstract 60
Introduction 60
Size and Form of Product Particles 61
Thermogravimetry 61
Other Properties 61
Conclusions 64
7 Effect of Organic Impurity on Seed Precipitation in Sodium Aluminate Solution 65
Abstract 65
Introduction 65
Experimental 66
Materials 66
Methods 66
Results and Discussion 67
Analysis of Organics in Sodium Aluminate Solution 67
Influence of LMW Organics on Precipitation 67
Influence on Precipitation of Plant Pregnant Liquor 68
Effect Mechanism of Organics in Bayer Liquor 69
Conclusion 70
References 71
8 Fitness-for-Service Assessment and Re-rating of Flawed Alumina Feeding Vessels 72
Abstract 72
Introduction 72
Plastic Collapse and Fatigue Assessment Considering Metal Loss 73
Finite Element Analysis to Develop Inspection Plan 74
Inspection Results and Immediate Repairs 75
Fracture Assessment with Current Crack Sizes 76
Crack Growth Estimate 77
Ongoing NDT and Vessel Replacement 77
Conclusions 78
References 78
9 Miniplant Tests of HCl Technology of Alumina Production 79
Abstract 79
Introduction 79
Miniplant Overview 79
Process Description 80
Acid Leaching 81
Si-Residue Filtration and Washing 81
Aluminium Chloride Hexahydrate Crystallization 82
Aluminium Chloride Hexahydrate Calcination 82
Hydrochloric Acid Rectification 83
Conclusions 83
References 83
10 Development and Utilization of Detailed Process and Technology Models at RUSAL Alumina Refineries 85
Abstract 85
Software for Process Simulation 85
Models of RUSAL Refineries 86
Model Features 88
Organizational Structure 89
Conclusions 90
References 90
11 Features of Pseudoboehmite from Alumina Production 92
Abstract 92
Introduction 92
Experimental 93
Results and Discussion 94
Conclusion 97
References 97
12 Digital Transformation in Alumina Refining 99
Abstract 99
Introduction 99
Value of Digital Transformation 99
Digital Transformational Issues 101
Methods Using Proven Technologies 102
Advanced Analytics for Performance Monitoring 102
Connected Worker Enabled by Automated Production Reporting 103
Connected Worker Enabled by Advanced Control 103
Connected Worker Enabled by Centralized Control Room 104
Connected Plant Enabled by Wireless Network Ecosystem 104
Emerging Trends 105
Advanced Analytics for Condition Based Monitoring of Assets 105
Other Emerging Digital Technologies 106
Conclusion 106
References 107
13 Thermodynamics Analysis on Process of Pelletizing Chlorination of Fly Ash 108
Abstract 108
Introduction 108
Experiments 109
Results and Discussion 110
Thermodynamics Analysis of Chlorination Process 110
Effect of Different Chlorination Conditions on Chlorination Process 110
Characterization of Chlorinated Slag in Different Conditions on Chlorination Process 111
Conclusions 112
Acknowledgements 113
References 113
14 Research on Alumina Preparation from Aluminium Chloride Solution by Electrolysis Process 115
Abstract 115
Introduction 115
Experiments 116
Raw Materials 116
Experimental Method 116
Results and Discussion 117
Influence of the Initial Concentration 117
Solution pH Change 117
Phase Analysis 117
Morphology Analysis 119
The Influences of Initial Composition 119
Solution pH Change 119
Phase Analysis 119
Morphology Analysis 120
Conclusions 120
References 121
15 How Digitalization Can Further Improve Plant Performance and Product Quality—Outotec Pretium Advisory Tool for Alumina Calcination 122
Abstract 122
Introduction 122
The Perficiency Concept: Expanding OEE/TEEP to Perficiency 122
Energy Efficiency 123
Emissions Profile 124
Case Example of Perficiency Estimation 124
Practical Application: Pretium Advisory Tool for Alumina Calcination 126
Conclusions and Discussion 130
Outlook on the Potential of Such an Approach 131
References 131
16 Experimental Investigation on Reduction of Cast Iron from Bayer Red Mud and Laterite Nickel 133
Abstract 133
Introduction 133
Experimental 133
Results and Discussion 134
Effect of Coke Content on Recovery Rate 134
Microstructure of the Alloys 135
The Hardness and Impact Properties of the Alloys 135
Conclusions 136
Acknowledgements 136
References 136
17 Analyzing the Bauxite Residue Amendment Through the Addition of Ca and Mg Hydroxides Followed by Carbonation 138
Abstract 138
Introduction 138
Bayer Process for Alumina Production 139
Bauxite Residue 139
BR Complex Alkalinity and the Reaction with Carbon Dioxide 139
Previous Experiments 140
Lab Scale Experiment Equipment 140
The Experiment 141
Results and Comparison of Pure Carbonation, Ca and Mg Addition 142
pH Monitoring 142
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analyses 143
Analysis of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 144
Conclusions 145
Next Steps 147
References 147
18 Comprehensive Utilization of Red Mud: Current Research Status and a Possible Way Forward for Non-hazardous Treatment 149
Abstract 149
Introduction 149
The Processing Method of Red Mud 149
The Storage of Red Mud 149
Utilization of Red Mud as an Integral Unit 150
Application in Building Materials 150
Reclamation 151
Application in Environmental Remediation 151
Extraction and Recovery of Valuable Metals 152
De-alkalization 152
Alumina Recovery 152
Iron Recovery 153
Recovery of Rare Metals 153
Calcification-Carbonization Method: Extract Valuable Elements First and then Fully Use the Treated Residue in an Integral Unit 153
Acknowledgements 154
References 154
19 Alumina, Iron and Titanium Extracting from Bauxite Residue with Low Lime Sinter Method 156
Abstract 156
Introduction 156
Experimental Procedure 157
Materials 157
Methods 157
Processing Procedure 157
Thermodynamic Analysis 158
Results and Discussion 158
Bauxite Residue 158
Sintering Process 158
Alumina Leaching Process 160
Titanium Leaching Process 160
Conclusions 160
Acknowledgements 160
References 160
20 Developing New Process for Selective Extraction of Rare Earth Elements from Bauxite Residue Based on Functionalized Ionic Liquids 162
Abstract 162
Introduction 162
Materials and Methods 163
Results and Discussion 163
Bauxite Residue Characterization 163
Bauxite Residue Direct HbetTf2N Leaching 164
Acid Stripping of the IL Leachate After BR Leaching 165
Conclusions 168
Acknowledgements 168
References 168
21 Effects of Reductive Roasting with Sodium Salts on Leaching Behavior of Non-ferrous Elements in Bauxite Ore Residue 170
Abstract 170
Introduction 170
Experimental 171
Materials 171
Experimental Methods 171
Reductive Roasting and Magnetic Separation Process 171
Phosphoric Acid Leaching 172
NaOH Leaching 173
Results and Discussion 173
Acidic Leaching of the Non-ferrous Elements in Bauxite Ore Residue 173
The Chemistry of the Phosphoric Acidic Leaching Process 173
H3PO4 Leaching of the Non-ferrous Elements in Bauxite Ore Residue 173
NaOH Leaching of the Non-ferrous Elements in Bauxite Ore Residue 175
Conclusions 176
Acknowledgements 176
References 176
22 Specific Features of Scandium Behavior During Sodium Bicarbonate Digestion of Red Mud 178
Abstract 178
Introduction 178
Scandium in Bauxites and Red Mud 178
Boehmite and Diaspore 179
Chamosite 179
Zircon 179
Titan Minerals and Phases 179
Hematite and Goethite 179
Apatite 179
Scandium Migration from Bauxite to Red Mud 180
Scandium Balance in Bayer Process 180
Research Objective 180
Experimental 181
Fixation of Scandium Recovered from RM 181
Red Mud Changes During Sodium Bicarbonate Digestion 181
Calcium Hydrogarnet Decomposition by Sodium Bicarbonate Solution 181
Scandium Binding by Calcium Hydrogarnet Decomposition Products (TCA) 183
Discussion 185
Dependence of Ca Hydrogarnet Quantity in Red Mud on Scandium Extraction 185
Conclusions 186
Acknowledgements 186
References 186
23 Flotation Separation of Pyrite from Refractory High-Sulfur Bauxite 187
Abstract 187
Introduction 187
Experiments 187
Materials 187
Flotation Tests 188
Results and Discussion 189
Effect of Pulp pH 189
Effect of Collector Dosage 189
Effect of Activator Dosage 190
Effect of Frother Dosage 190
Conclusions 190
Acknowledgements 191
References 191
24 Research on the Desulfurization of High Sulfur Bauxite 192
Abstract 192
Introduction 192
Experiment 192
Materials 192
Flotation Tests 193
Results and Discussion 193
Effect of Particle Size 193
Effect of Pulp pH 194
Effect of Collector 194
Effect of Activator 195
Regrinding Rough Concentrate 195
Conclusion 195
Acknowledgements 196
References 196
25 Research on the Interaction Between 1-Butyl-2-Mercaptobenzimidazole and Pyrite 197
Abstract 197
Introduction 197
Experiments 198
Materials 198
Synthesis of DMBI 198
Adsorption Experiments 198
Results and Discussion 199
Effect of Adsorption Time 199
Effect of Initial pH 199
Effect of Initial Concentration and the Adsorption Isotherms 199
Adsorption Thermodynamics 200
Conclusions 201
Acknowledgements 201
References 201
26 Flotation of Low-Grade Bauxite Using Modified Humics as Depressant 202
Abstract 202
Introduction 202
Raw Materials and Experiments 202
Characterization of Materials 202
Synthesis Depressant 203
Bench Scale Flotation 203
Results and Discussion 203
Effect of Particle Size 203
Effect of Pulp pH 204
Effect of Depressant Dosage 204
Effect of Collector Dosage 204
Conclusion 205
Acknowledgements 205
References 205
27 Research on the Adsorption of Humic Acid on Pyrite Surface 206
Abstract 206
Introduction 206
Materials and Methods 206
Pyrite Samples 206
Humic Acid 206
Batch Adsorption Experiment 207
Results and Discussion 207
Effect of pH 207
Effect of Ionic Strength 208
Effect of Contact Time and Adsorption Kinetics 208
Effect of Temperature 208
Thermodynamic Properties of Adsorption 209
Conclusions 211
Acknowledgements 211
References 211
28 Experimental Investigation on Desiliconization of Low-Grade Bauxite by Flotation Process 212
Abstract 212
Introduction 212
Experiments 212
Materials 212
Flotation Tests 214
Results and Discussion 214
Effect of Collector Dosage 214
Effect of Particle Size 214
Effect of Pulp pH 215
Effect of Depressant Dosage 215
Desiliconization Open Circuit Experiment 216
Conclusions 216
Acknowledgements 216
References 216
29 The Impact of Backwater Iron Ions on Bauxite Flotation 217
Abstract 217
Introduction 217
Materials and Methods 217
Minerals 217
Reagents 218
Micro-flotation Tests 218
Zeta Potential Measurements 218
Results and Discussion 218
The Effects of Iron Ions in Backwater on Diaspore and Kaolinite Flotation 218
Solution Chemistry Analyses 219
Zeta Potential Measurements 220
Conclusions 220
Acknowledgements 220
References 220
Aluminum Alloys, Processing and Characterization 222
30 Grain Boundary Precipitation and Fracture Behavior of Al–Cu–Li Alloys 223
Abstract 223
Introduction 223
Experimental 223
Results and Discussion 224
Precipitation Within Grains 224
Precipitation at Grain Boundaries 224
Fracture Behavior 226
DFT Simulations: Decohesion Energy 227
Summary 228
Acknowledgements 229
References 229
31 Comparison of Texture and Surface Finish Evolution During Single Point Incremental Forming and Formability Testing of AA 7075 230
Abstract 230
Introduction 230
Methods 231
Results and Discussion 233
Conclusions 236
Acknowledgements 236
References 236
32 Understanding the Co-precipitation Mechanisms of Al3(Sc, Zr) with Strengthening Phases in Al–Cu–Li Model Alloys 238
Abstract 238
Introduction 238
Methodology 239
Alloy Selection 239
Thermomechanical Treatment 239
Mechanical Testing 240
Microstructural Characterization 240
Results 240
Discussion 243
Conclusions 244
Acknowledgements 244
References 244
33 Determining a Retrogression Heat Treatment to Apply During Warm Forming of a High Strength Aluminum AA7075 Sheet Material 245
Abstract 245
Introduction 245
Experimental Procedure 246
Material 246
Differential Scanning Calorimetry 246
Retrogressed Hardness 247
Results 247
Differential Scanning Calorimetry 247
Retrogressed Hardness 248
Discussion 248
Conclusions 249
Acknowledgements 249
References 249
34 Development of High-Strength and High-Electrical-Conductivity Aluminum Alloys for Power Transmission Conductors 251
Abstract 251
Introduction 251
Experimental Procedures 252
Results and Discussion 253
Conclusions 255
Acknowledgements 255
References 255
35 The Combined Effects of Sr Additions and Heat Treatment on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High Pressure Die Cast A383 Alloy 256
Abstract 256
Introduction 256
Experimental Procedures 256
Experimental Results 257
Influences of Sr Additions and Heat Treatment on the Mechanical Properties of HPDC A383 Alloys 257
Effects of Sr Additions and Heat Treatment on the Microstructures of HPDC A383 Alloys 257
Effect of Sr Additions on the Aging Precipitates in HPDC A383 Alloys 257
Discussion 258
Relationship Between Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of HPDC A383 Alloys 258
Conclusions 259
Acknowledgements 259
References 259
36 Influence of Additional Elements (Si, Ti and B) on the Castability, Corrosion and Mechanical Properties of A201 Alloys 261
Abstract 261
Introduction 261
Experimental 261
Results and Discussion 262
Castability 262
Age-Hardening Behavior 262
Microstructure 263
Corrosion 266
Conclusion 267
References 267
37 Effect of Ni Addition on the Solidification Process and Microstructure of Al-12%Si-4%Cu-1.2%Mn-x%Ni Heat-Resistant Alloys 268
Abstract 268
Introduction 268
Materials and Method 269
Results and Discussion 269
Phase Diagram Calculation 269
Phase Constituent Analysis 270
XRD Analysis 270
SEM-EDS Analysis 272
Optical Microstructure with Ni Addition 276
Conclusions 278
Acknowledgements 278
References 278
38 Phase Formation of Monotectic Al–In and Al–Ga–In Alloys and Implications Thereof 280
Abstract 280
Introduction 280
Experimental Procedures 281
Results and Discussion 281
Conclusions 283
References 283
39 Investigations on Pb-Free 6000 Series Aluminum Alloy for Machining Applications 285
Abstract 285
Introduction 285
Experimental Procedure 286
Results and Discussion 287
Microstructural Observations 287
Mechanical Properties 288
Machinability 289
Conclusions 291
References 291
40 Optimization in Novel Partial-Solid High Pressure Aluminum Die Casting by Taguchi Method 293
Abstract 293
Introduction 293
Experimental Studies 294
Determination of Factors and Orthogonal Array 294
Casting Experiments 295
Radiography Testing 295
Characterization 295
Results and Discussion 295
Analysis of Radiography Quality Score 295
Optimization and Taguchi Confirmation Experiment 296
Microstructural Results 297
Analysis of Confirmation Experiment Specimen 298
Conclusion 299
Acknowledgements 299
References 299
41 Application of the Hot Stamping Process to Aluminum Alloy Structural Components 301
Abstract 301
Introduction 301
Methodology 301
Results and Discussion 302
Hot Tensile Tests 302
Determination of Blank Soaking Conditions 303
Hot Stamping Trials 303
Part Thickness Measurements 304
Artificial Aging 304
Conclusions 305
Acknowledgements 305
References 305
42 Failure of 5000 and 6000 Series Aluminum Alloys in Modular Wastewater Treatment Aeration Tanks 307
Abstract 307
Introduction 307
Background 308
Wastewater Treatment and Composition 308
Material Selection and Performance in Wastewater Treatment 309
Materials and Methods 310
Results 312
Discussion 313
Conclusions 316
References 316
43 Grain Refinement of Al–Si–Mg Cast Alloys by Al3Ti3B Master Alloy 318
Abstract 318
Introduction 318
Experimental 319
Alloy Preparation and Casting 319
Characterization 319
Results and Discussion 319
Grain Refinement Effect 319
Microstructure 319
Grain Refinement Mechanism 319
Conclusions 321
Acknowledgements 321
References 321
44 Improving Bendability of Al–Mg–Si Alloy Sheet by Minor Alloying Element Addition 323
Abstract 323
Introduction 323
Procedures and Experiments 324
Results and Discussion 324
Thermodynamic Calculations (JMatPro) 324
Microstructural Observations 324
Mechanical Properties 327
Conclusion 328
Acknowledgements 328
References 328
45 Deep Drawing and Anodizing Quality Improvement in AA3003-O Alloy by Optimization of Homogenization, Rolling and Annealing 330
Abstract 330
Introduction 330
Experimental Procedure 331
Results and Discussion 332
Microstructural Observations 332
Electrical Conductivity Analysis 334
Mechanical Properties 334
Formability 334
Anodizing Trial (Surface Quality Check) 335
Conclusions 336
References 336
46 Understanding Large-Strain Softening of Aluminum in Shear at Elevated Temperatures 337
Abstract 337
Introduction and Background 337
Discussion 339
Conclusions 340
Acknowledgements 341
References 341
47 Assessments of Sc-Containing Ternary Systems Al–Sc–Ti and Al–Sc–Zr Within the Thermodynamic Database for Aluminium Alloys, TCAL5 342
Abstract 342
Introduction 342
Phase Equilibria 343
Al–Sc–Ti 343
Al–Sc–Zr 343
Molar Volume and Thermal Expansivity 344
Lattice Mismatch 346
Conclusion 347
References 347
48 Multiscale Model for Al–Li Material Processing Simulation Under Forging Conditions 349
Abstract 349
Introduction 349
Model Formulation 350
Texture and Constitutive Response Prediction Under Forging Conditions 352
Conclusions 357
Acknowledgements 358
References 358
49 Investigation of Effect of Aging Treatment on Deformation Behavior of Al–Mg–Si Alloy Using Quasi-2D Polycrystalline Sample 359
Abstract 359
Introduction 359
Experimental Procedure 359
Results and Discussion 360
Mechanical Properties 360
Microstructure 360
Conclusion 365
References 365
50 Development of Innovative Al–Si–Mn–Mg Alloys with High Mechanical Properties 366
Abstract 366
Introduction 366
Experimental Work 367
Results and Discussion 367
Thermodynamic Calculations 367
Simple Thermal Analysis 369
Differential Scanning Calorimetry 369
Optical End Electron Microscopy 369
Mechanical Properties 369
Conclusion 372
Acknowledgements 372
References 372
51 A General Formulation of Eutectic Silicon Morphology and Processing History 374
Abstract 374
Introduction 374
Materials and Methods 375
Powder Production 375
Analytical Tools 375
Results and Discussion 375
Microstructures Formation and Processing History 375
Si Morphologies Variation of the Eutectic Si 378
Conclusions 379
Acknowledgements 379
References 379
52 Evaluation of Hot Tearing Susceptibility of 6000 Series Aluminum Alloys Using Constrained Solidification Test 381
Abstract 381
Introduction 381
Experimental 381
Mold Design 381
Preheating and Casting 381
Inspection and Evaluation 382
Discussion 382
Hot Tearing Indexes 382
Variations of 6063 Alloy 384
Variations of 6005 Alloy 384
6360 Alloy 384
Grain Refiner Addition 384
Metallostatic Pressure 385
Conclusions 387
References 387
53 In-Situ Fitness-for-Service Assessment of Aluminum Alloys Developed for Automotive Powertrain Lightweighting 388
Abstract 388
Introduction 388
Experimental 389
Results and Discussion 389
Conclusions 390
References 390
54 Research on the Effect of the Processing Parameters on Susceptibility of Liquation Cracking of Al Alloys During Refilled Friction Stir Spot Welding 392
Abstract 392
Introduction 392
Experimental Procedure 393
Results and Discussion 395
The Effect of the Plunge Depth on the Cracking Susceptibility and Mechanical Properties 395
The Effect of the Rotation Speed on the Cracking Susceptibility and Mechanical Properties 395
The Effect of the Plunge Speed on the Cracking Susceptibility and Mechanical Properties 397
Conclusions 397
References 398
55 Factors Influencing the Cast Duration of Horizontal Continuous Ingot Casters 399
Abstract 399
Caster Set-Up 399
Statistical Failure Reasons Analysis 399
Strand Loss as a Result of Bleed Out 400
Nozzle Clogging 402
Conclusions 405
Reference 405
56 On Si Redistribution During Friction Stir Processing of Cast Al-7%Si–0.4%Mg Alloys 406
Abstract 406
Introduction 406
Background 406
Experimental Procedure 407
Results and Discussion 407
Conclusion 410
References 410
57 Equal Channel Angular Pressing of a Newly Developed Precipitation Hardenable Scandium Containing Aluminum Alloy 412
Abstract 412
Introduction 412
Experimental Procedure 413
Alloy Production and Aging Heat Treatments 413
ECAP Processing 413
Mechanical Characterization 413
Microstructure Characterization 414
Results and Discussion 414
Conclusions 417
Acknowledgements 417
References 418
58 Stiffness Improvement Through Alloying Elements in Al Alloys 419
Abstract 419
Introduction 419
Experimental 419
Results and Discussion 420
Conclusions 421
Acknowledgements 421
References 421
59 Formation Mechanism of Surface Segregation in Heated Mold Continuous Casting Al–Cu Alloy 422
Abstract 422
Introduction 422
Experimental 423
HMCC Experiment 423
Microstructure Observation 423
Numerical Simulation of HMCC Al–5Cu Alloy 423
Results and Discussion 424
Results of HMCC Al–5Cu Alloy 424
The Numerical Simulation Results of HMCC Al–5Cu Alloy and Discussion 424
Conclusions 426
References 426
60 Effects of Rare Earth Er Additions on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of an Al–Zn–Mg–Cu Alloy 427
Abstract 427
Introduction 427
Experimental Procedure 428
Results and Discussion 429
Structural Characterization 429
Tensile Properties 432
Fractography of Tensile Specimens 434
Conclusion 434
References 435
61 Effects of Extrusion and Heat Treatment Conditions on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of an Al–Zn–Mg–Cu–Er Alloy 436
Abstract 436
Introduction 436
Experimental Procedure 436
Results and Discussion 437
Structural Characterization 437
Tensile Properties 439
Fractography of Tensile Specimens 439
Conclusion 444
References 444
Aluminum Reduction Technology 445
62 Maximizing Previous Pot Design to Have Higher Capacity 446
Abstract 446
Introduction 446
Roadmap Capacity 446
Improvement Milestones 447
Pot Design Historical and Current Achievements 448
Pot Design for Higher Amperage 448
Amperage Increase at Line 1 and Line 3 450
Conclusion 457
References 457
63 On the Use of Multivariate Statistical Methods to Detect, Diagnose and Mitigate Abnormal Events in Aluminium Smelters 458
Abstract 458
Introduction 458
Data and Methodology 459
Introduction to PCA 459
Building the PCA Model 460
Projections onto the PCA Model 460
Conclusion 466
References 466
64 Spike Detection Using Advanced Analytics and Data Analysis 467
Abstract 467
Introduction 467
General Approach and Measurements 467
Statistical Modeling 467
Hidden Markov Models 467
Data Pre-processing 468
Machine Learning 469
Operational Choices 470
Data Driven Management 471
Conclusion 472
References 472
65 Speed, Agility and Simplicity (SAS) Recovery of Reduction Line-5 in Alba 473
Abstract 473
Introduction 473
Reduction Line 5 473
Power Outage in Reduction Lines 473
Black Out in Reduction Lines 474
Pot Open Circuit in Reduction Line 5 474
Pot Shutdown 475
Reduction Line 5 Recovery 475
Cathode Cleaning and Preparation 476
Special Equipment 476
Overview of the Restart Activity 476
Mapping the Pot Cavity After Dry Scaling, Identifying the Defects and Areas for Repair 476
Observations and Deciding on the Repair Work 477
Centre Crack Across the Cathode Surface 478
Repair and Replacement of Damaged SiC-Blocks 478
Preheat and Pot Start-up 479
Hand Over Sheet 479
Bath Preparation and Pot Line Restart Pots 479
Criteria for Donor Pots Selection 479
Liquid Bath Transfer 479
Pot Startup 479
Pot Preheat 479
Dry Start-up and Normalization 480
Pot Tending Assemblies (PTA) Utilization 480
Cut Out Wedges Management 480
Conclusion 480
References 481
66 Partial Repair and Restart of a Damaged Aluminium Reduction Cell 482
Abstract 482
Introduction 482
Cell Tap Out 482
Repairing 483
Preheating Preparation 483
Preheating and Results 483
Prepare Restart 484
Restart Operations 484
Cell Performance After Restarting 485
Experience 486
Conclusion 486
References 487
67 Discussion on Alumina Dissolution and Diffusion in Commercial Aluminum Reduction Cell 488
Abstract 488
Introduction 488
Experimental 489
Results and Discussion 489
Conclusion 493
Acknowledgements 493
References 493
68 Investigation of Alumina Concentration Gradients Within Hall-Héroult Electrolytic Bath 495
Abstract 495
Introduction 495
Background 496
Study of Natural Process Variation 497
Study of Alumina Dispersion Within the Cell 498
Alumina Concentration Depletion Before Anode Effect 499
Study of Natural Process Variation at Higher Amperage 500
Conclusion 501
Acknowledgements 501
References 501
69 Study of Alumina Dissolution in Cryolitic Bath to the Vertical Soderberg (VSS) Aluminum Production Process 503
Abstract 503
Introduction 503
Bath Temperature and Superheat (?T) 503
Electrolytic Bath 504
Alumina Properties 504
Specific Surface 504
Crystallographic Formation 504
Materials and Methodology 505
Results and Discussion 505
Alumina Concentration 505
Temperature Behavior 505
Crust Temperature 508
Cavity Profile 509
Current Efficiency and Energy Consumption 510
Conclusions 512
References 512
70 Impacts of Sodium on Alumina Quality and Consequences for Current Efficiency 513
Abstract 513
Introduction 513
Experimental Methodology 514
Results 514
Mechanism of Bulk Sodium Incorporation and Surface Segregation in SGA 514
Impact of Porosity-Bound Sodium on HF Capture by SGAs 515
Impacts of Crystallographic Bulk-Bound Sodium on Current and Energy Efficiency 517
Conclusions 518
References 519
71 Alucell: A Unique Suite of Models to Optimize Pot Design and Performance 520
Abstract 520
Introduction 520
Steady-State Model 520
Transient MHD Metal Pad Instabilities 522
Alumina Dissolution Model 525
MHD-TE Model 526
Conclusions 528
Acknowledgements 528
References 528
72 Anode Bottom Burnout Shape and Velocity Field Investigation in a High Amperage Electrolysis Cell 529
Abstract 529
Introduction 529
The Comparison of the Measurements and Numerical Results 530
Conclusions 534
References 534
73 CFD Modelling of Alumina Feeding 535
Abstract 535
Introduction 535
Model Formulations 536
Euler-Euler Formulation 536
Euler-Lagrange Formulation 538
Free Surfaces 539
Demonstration 539
Simulation Conditions 539
Geometry and Mesh 539
Results 540
Discussion and Concluding Remarks 541
Acknowledgements 541
References 541
74 Effect of Steel Multi-collector Bars on Current Density and Magnetohydrodynamic Stability in an Aluminum Reduction Cell 543
Abstract 543
Introduction 543
Numerical Model 544
Geometrical Model 544
MHD Model 544
Boundary Conditions 545
Results and Discussion 545
Conclusions 549
References 549
75 Numerical Simulation Study on Gas Collecting System of 400 kA Grade Aluminum Electrolytic Cell 551
Abstract 551
Introduction 551
The Model for Computation 552
The Geometrical Model 552
The Mathematical Models 552
Results and Discussion 553
Physical Field of the Model A 553
Flow Field of Model A 553
Heat Field of the Model A 555
Pressure Field of Model A 556
Physical Field of the Model B 556
Flow Field of Model B 556
Heat Field of the Model B 557
Pressure Field of Model B 558
Conclusion 559
Acknowledgements 564
References 564
76 Study on 3D Full Cell Ledge Shape Calculation and Optimal Design Criteria by Coupled Thermo-Flow Model 565
Abstract 565
Introduction 565
Mathematical Model 566
Model Description 566
Control Equations 567
Physical Domain and Boundary Conditions 568
Results and Discussion 569
The Distribution of EMFs and Flow Patterns 569
The Full-Cell Ledge with Two-Vortex Flow Pattern 569
The Full-Cell Ledge with Multi-vortex Flow Pattern 571
The Design Criteria of EMFs 573
Conclusions 573
Acknowledgements 574
References 574
77 The Successful Implementation of Energy Saving Technology Based on Steady Flow and Heat Preservation 575
Abstract 575
Introduction 575
ESTSH Development 575
Technical Approach 575
Industrial Experiment of ESTSH 576
Industrial Implementation of ESTSH 577
ESTSH Cells Performance 578
Conclusions 581
References 581
78 Current Efficiency in Hall-Héroult Cells: The Role of Mass Transfer at the Cathode 582
Abstract 582
Introduction 582
Dissolved Metal and Electronic Conductivity 583
Experimental 583
Basic Idea 583
The Modified Sterten-Solli Cell 584
Determination of Mass Transfer Coefficient 584
Experiments in Cryolite 585
Results and Discussion 585
Acknowledgements 586
References 586
79 Effects of Current Density on Current Efficiency in Low Temperature Electrolysis with Vertical Electrode Structure 587
Abstract 587
Introduction 587
Experimental 587
Electrolyte 587
Experimental Conditions 588
Experimental Process 588
Analysis Methods 588
Results and Discussion 588
Current Density Adjustment Test 588
Simulation and Calculation of Current Distribution 590
Effect of Current Density on Cathode Performance 592
Results and Discussion 594
Conclusions 595
References 595
80 Relationship Between Aluminium Electrolysis Current Efficiency and Operating Condition in Electrolyte Containing High Concentration of Li and K 596
Abstract 596
Introduction 596
Relationship Between Current Efficiency and Operating Condition 597
Relationship Between Current Efficiency and Bath Temperature 597
Relationship Between Current Efficiency and Superheat 597
Relationship Between Current Efficiency and Cell Voltage 598
Relationship Between Current Efficiency and Bath Molecular Ratio 598
Relationship Between Current Efficiency and Bath Composition 599
Relationship Between Current Efficiency and Side Ledge 599
Relationship Between Current Efficiency and Aluminum Level 600
Conclusions 600
References 601
81 Evaluating Effects of Future Shared Mobility and Electrification Trends on Key Intermediate Indicator of Aluminum Transportation Demand: US Vehicle Fleet Size 602
Abstract 602
Introduction 602
Methodology 603
Travel Mode Choice Modeling Using Multi-attribute Utility Theory 603
Vehicle Fleet Estimation from Travel Behavior 604
Scenario Descriptions 605
Results 606
Conclusion 608
References 609
82 Improvement in Smelter Process Analysis Through EGA Lab Modernization 611
Abstract 611
Introduction 611
Methods Used in Eliminating the Bath Analysis Gap 611
Sampling and Lab Sample Preparation 611
Methods of Analysis 613
Wet Chemical Analysis 613
X-ray Diffraction Method 613
Eliminating the Gap 614
Bath Analysis Conclusion 614
Current Analysis Frequency—Anode Cores 614
Future Analysis Frequency—Anode Cores 614
Improving Carbon Lab Efficiency 615
JA and AT Laboratory Cu Variation 615
Introduction 618
Background 618
Technology Development and Transfer Action 618
Technical Laboratory Action 620
83 Two-Stage Pot Gas Treatment Technology Allowing the Production of Sodium Sulfate 621
Abstract 621
Introduction 621
State-of-the Art Gas Scrubbing Processes in Aluminum Production 622
International Practices 622
RUSAL Experience 622
Removal of Sodium Sulfate from RUSAL Gas Treatment System 624
Laboratory Studies to Remove Sodium Sulfate 625
Methods of Cleaning Sodium Sulfate from Fluorine Compounds 626
Sodium Sulfate Removal Flow Chart 626
Technology Performance Data of Evaporator 627
Conclusions 628
Acknowledgements 628
Reference 628
84 Improved Abart Gas Treatment and Alumina Handling at the Karmøy Technology Pilot 629
Abstract 629
Introduction 629
Qualification of New Equipment Solutions 630
Alfeed 630
HEX-Selection 630
The Integrated Heat Exchanger (IHEX) 631
Other Equipment 631
The Impact of the IHEX on the Abart Dry Scrubber Technology 632
IHEX Emission Measurements in Alcoa Mosjøen 633
Conclusions 634
References 634
85 Alternative Roof-Vent Emission Monitoring Method 636
Abstract 636
Introduction 636
Materials and Methods 637
Set-up for Our Campaigns 637
Campaign No. 1 May 3. 2016 to June 3. 2016 637
Campaign No. 2 April 5. 2017 to May 3. 2017 639
Discussion 641
Further Work 642
Conclusions 643
Acknowledgements 643
References 643
86 SPL: An Update 644
Abstract 644
Introduction 644
Chemical Compositions 644
Processes 645
Hydrometallurgical Processes 645
Pyrometallurgical Processes 646
Conclusion 646
Acknowledgements 647
References 647
87 Bubble Dispersion States in the Zinc Oxide Desulfurization Injection Blow Tank 648
Abstract 648
Introduction 648
Experimental 649
Results and Discussion 649
Effect of Impeller Structure on Bubble Dispersion 649
Effect of Nozzle Structure on Bubble Dispersion 650
Effect of Rotation Speed on Bubble Dispersion 650
Effect of Gas-Flow Rate on Bubble Dispersion 650
Effect of Impeller Immersion Depth on Bubble Dispersion 650
Effect of Impeller Eccentricity on Bubble Dispersion 652
Conclusions 652
Acknowledgements 652
References 652
88 Decision Criteria for Pneumatic Conveying and Distribution of Material 653
Abstract 653
Introduction 653
Investigations 653
Theoretical Considerations 653
Tests Carried Out 654
Permanent Aeration 654
Test for Horizontal Aeration 654
Wear/Fracture Tests 656
Conclusion of the Laboratory and Field Test 656
Criteria for Upgrade of Existing Conveying Systems 657
Fluidized Pneumatic Conveying as an Option for Different Upgrades 657
Outlook 658
References 659
89 Very Low Energy Consumption Cell Designs: The Cell Heat Balance Challenge 660
Abstract 660
Introduction 660
600 kA, 13.26 kWh/kg Cell Heat Balance 660
500 kA, 11.2 kWh/kg Cell Heat Balance 660
762.5 kA, 12.8 kWh/kg Cell Heat Balance 662
650 kA, 11.3 kWh/kg Cell Heat Balance 662
Comparison of the Two Very Low Energy Consumption Cell Design Options 664
Future Work 667
Conclusions 668
References 668
90 APXe Cell Technology: 7 Years of Low Energy Operation 669
Abstract 669
AP60 and APXe Cell Platform 669
The Technical Challenge of the Low Energy Cell 669
APXe Development 670
Heat Loss Reduction 670
Electrical Resistance Reduction 671
Increasing Current Efficiency 671
Trial Results 672
First Phase Results 672
Second Phase Results 673
Conclusion 674
References 674
91 Development and Industrial Application of NEUI600 High Efficiency Aluminum Reduction Cell 675
Abstract 675
Introduction 675
Development of NEUI600 High Efficiency Aluminum Reduction Cell Technology 675
Electrical Optimization of Cathode Busbar 675
Optimization of Magnetic Field Distribution 676
Simulation of MHD Stability 676
Simulation of Thermal Field and Lining Optimization 676
Simulation and Optimization of Stress Field of Pot Shell and Superstructure 678
Simulation of Gas Flow Field Inside Pots and Optimization of Gas Collecting Structure 679
Pot Control System 680
Industrial Application of NEUI600 Technology 680
Preheating and Start-Up 681
Operation and Management After Start-Up 681
Operation and Management in Production Period 681
Main Technical and Economic Parameters 682
Conclusion 682
Acknowledgements 682
References 683
92 RA-550 Cell Technology: UC RUSAL’s New Stage of Technology Development 684
Abstract 684
Introduction 684
Project Implementation 685
Project Phase 1—Deliverables 686
Basic RA-550 Cell Design Performance 686
Conclusions 688
93 DX+ Ultra Industrial Version: Preheat Start Up and Early Operation 689
Abstract 689
Introduction 689
Busbar Design Modification 690
Cell Autopsy 690
Cell Lining Design Modification 690
Pot Preparation, Preheat and Start-Up of New Pot 692
Preparation, Preheat and Restart of Stopped Pots 693
Cell Performance 694
Conclusions 696
Acknowledgements 697
References 697
94 Selecting Technology for Achieving 300,000 T/Year—Why Do We Need to Compete Pot Technology? 698
Abstract 698
Introduction 698
Roadmap of Capacity 698
Requirement of Pot Technology Upgrade 699
Potential Risk 699
Strategy of Pot Technology Upgrade 701
Implementation of Strategy 701
Evaluation Method 702
Benefit 702
Conclusion 703
References 703
95 AP44 Development at Alma 704
Abstract 704
AP4X Technology Evolution 704
AP44 Trial Setup 705
Overview of the Trial Period 705
AP44 Experimental Results 706
Trial Operating Point 706
Current Efficiency 707
Comparative Technical Results 707
Ledge Profile 708
Operation Requirements 708
Conclusions 710
Acknowledgements 711
References 711
96 EGA New D20+ Technology with Reduced Energy Consumption 712
Abstract 712
Introduction 712
Modernization of D20 Cells 713
Startup of D20+ 716
Performance of D20+ 717
Conclusion 719
References 719
97 Potline Start Up Without Anode Effect Frequency 720
Abstract 720
Introduction 720
Method 721
The pot88 721
Preheat 721
Bath Up (pot88) 721
Metal Pouring 721
Bath up of the Pot No. 186: Without Anode Effect 721
Pre Heat 721
Bath Up (pot186) 721
Metal Pouring (pot186) 721
Results and Discussion 721
Conclusion 726
References 727
98 Thermo-electrical Modeling of an Aluminum Reduction Cell 728
Abstract 728
Introduction 728
Aluminum Production Process 729
The Bath 729
Modeling 730
Model Construction 730
Boundari Condition 730
Result and Discussion 731
Conclusion 734
References 734
99 Restarting Electrochemical Cell with Cold Metal (D18 Cell) 736
Abstract 736
Introduction 736
Experimental Procedure 737
Cleaning 737
Preparation 737
Running and Loading 737
Special Cares 737
Conclusion 741
References 741
Cast Shop Technology 742
100 Root Cause Analysis Findings of a Force 3 Explosion 743
Abstract 743
Introduction 743
Engineering Controls Established 744
Day of Incident 744
Investigation 745
Conclusion 746
References 746
101 Condensation Warning System for Dry Material Storage 747
Abstract 747
Introduction 747
Design and Development of the Condensation Warning System (CWS) 748
Field Testing 750
Conclusions 751
References 751
102 ACS/Aluminium Crucible Skimmer 752
Abstract 752
Introduction 752
Criteria for Development of ACS Robot 753
Brief Description of the Equipment 753
Main Parts of ACS/Aluminium Crucible Skimmer 753
Typical Sequence 754
Operational Experience at Alcoa Baie-Comeau 755
Installation in Summer 2015 755
Main Benefits Observed after More than Two Years of Operation 755
Issues Faced 755
Modification on Equipment (in 2017) 755
Results and Benefits Obtained with the Skimmer 756
Skimming Efficiency 756
Dross Reduction in Furnace (Amount/Qty per Batch) 756
Skimmer Unit—Benefits on the Process Quality 756
Tool Replacement (Robot) 757
Operating and Maintenance Costs 757
Conclusion 758
Acknowledgements 758
References 758
103 Drive-In Feeding of Crucibles for Casting Machine 759
Abstract 759
Introduction 759
Eliminating the Overhead Cranes 759
Motivations 759
Challenges 760
Automating the Process 760
Simple Tilt Mould Filling 760
Mass Flow Control Mould Filling 760
Emergency Stop 762
Industrial Implementation 762
Project Context 762
Equipment Description 762
Challenges and Solutions 762
Benefits 763
Other Possibilities and Future Developments 763
Ingot Casting 763
ASCAST 764
Conclusion 764
References 764
104 In-line Salt Fluxing Process With an FFD™ 765
Abstract 765
Introduction 765
Brief Operating Principle of FFD 766
Metallurgical Performance 766
Comparison Between Injection of Solid Flux and Injection of Cl2 in an A622 766
Comparison Between Injection of Solid Flux and Injection of Cl2 in an AlPUR 767
Conclusion 769
References 769
105 The “Alcoa Filter System AFS”: A Cost Effective Solution for Enhanced CFF Performance 770
Abstract 770
Introduction 770
Technologies 770
Priming Requirements 771
Existing Alternative Priming Methods 771
Vacuum 771
Electromagnetic Priming 771
A New Approach to Priming 771
Breaking the Surface Tension Using Vibration 771
Hypothesis 772
Parameters 772
Laboratory Testing 772
Description of the Unit 772
Trials and Results 772
Important Parameters 773
Testing in Bécancour—Description of the Unit 773
Trials and Results 774
Conclusion 775
Acknowledgements 777
References 777
106 Continuous Centrifugal Casting: A Revolutionary Process for Casting Aluminium Tubes 778
Abstract 778
Introduction 778
Proposed Process 779
General Description 779
Main Process Challenges 780
Process Parameters 781
Cast Tube Diameter 781
Angular Velocity 781
Casting Speed 781
Cooling Water Pattern 781
Molten Metal Temperature 781
Inert Gas 781
Experiment 782
Results 783
Future Work 785
Conclusion 785
Acknowledgements 785
Reference 785
107 Development of a Prototype Unit for Continuous Centrifugal Casting of Aluminum Tubes 786
Abstract 786
Introduction 786
The Prototype 786
Metal Feeding 787
Centrifugal Caster 788
Extraction Assembly 791
Control 792
Conclusion 792
References 792
108 Constellium’s R& D on the Use of Power Ultrasound in Liquid Aluminium: An Overview
Abstract 793
Introduction 793
Ceramic Sonotrodes 793
Bell Tube Sonotrode and Ultrasonic Brazing 794
Materials and Method 794
Observations and Results 794
Perfect Ceramic Metal Bond Obtained by Ultrasonic Brazing 794
Application of the Power Ultrasound-Driven Wetting of Ceramics to Ultrasonic Detection of Inclusions in al Melts 794
Mechanism of Fluid Pumping Observation in a Sonicated Glass Tube in Water
Degassing Performance of a “Bell Tube” Sonotrode Used in Liquid Al Alloy 797
Transposition of Water Trials to Liquid Al Trials 797
Pressure Field Modelling in the Fluid and Comparison Between Water and Liquid Al 797
Electrical Analysis 798
Acoustophoresis 798
Conclusion 799
Acknowledgements 800
References 800
109 Molten Metal Cleanliness: Recent Developments to Improve Measurement Reliability 801
Abstract 801
Introduction 801
The PoDFA Test and Its Inherent Error 802
The Prefil Test, Premetz Analysis and Its Error 804
Filter Permeability Variation 805
Filter Attack During the Prefil Test 806
Discussion and Conclusions 806
References 808
110 On-site Benchmarking of LiMCA III Versus LiMCA II for Monitoring of Non-metallic Inclusions in Liquid Aluminium 809
Abstract 809
Introduction 809
LiMCA’s Measurement Technology 810
Procedure 810
Results 811
LiMCA III Operation-User Aspects 811
LiMCA II–LiMCA III Benchmark Test 812
LiMCA III On-site Validation 814
LiMCA III Alloy and Process Monitoring Capabilities 815
Summary and Conclusions 815
References 816
111 Discussion of Bi-Film Index and LiMCA Data in Industrial Aluminum Remelting Trials 817
Abstract 817
Introduction 817
Characterization Methods 817
Bi-Film Index 817
Laboratory Study of Bi-Film Index 818
Bi-Film Index Robustness 818
Gas Purging and Salt Additions Effect on Bi-Film Index in Small Scale 818
Procedure of Lab Scale Trials 818
Results of Lab Scale Trials 819
Test Material and Procedure for the Industrial Trials 819
Results from Industrial Trials 819
Bi-Film Index and LiMCA Versus Casting Time 819
Summary of Comparison Between LiMCA and Bi-Film Results 819
Relation Between Bi-Film Index and Hydrogen 819
Discussion 820
Conclusions 823
Acknowledgements 823
References 823
112 Inclusion Composition Determination by in-Line LIBS Measurement—Plant Assessment 824
Abstract 824
Introduction 824
Experimental Conditions 826
Results 826
Discussion 827
Conclusion 829
Acknowledgements 830
References 830
113 An Innovative Ultrasonic Technology for the Continuous Quality Monitoring of Liquid Aluminum on Casting Lines 831
Abstract 831
Introduction 831
Background of the Ultrasonic Inclusion Detection in Molten Metal 832
The Constellium Ultrasound Inclusion Detector 832
Measurement Principle 832
Measurement Performances: Industrial Results and Discussion 834
Industrial Implementation 835
Compatibility with Different Base Metals 837
Conclusions 837
Future Prospects 838
Acknowledgements 838
References 838
114 Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry in Liquid Aluminum 839
Abstract 839
Introduction 839
Ultrasound Doppler Velocimetry: Working Principle 840
Experimental Conditions 840
UDV Experimental Results 841
Feasibility Test at Laboratory Scale 841
Molten Metal Velocity Measurement in Casting Trough 841
UDV Measurements in DC Casting Sump 842
Conclusions 843
Acknowledgements 843
References 843
115 Nitridation Reaction of Aluminum and Magnesium in 5XXX Series Aluminum Alloy 845
Abstract 845
Introduction 845
Previous Research Studies 845
Melting of Mg Ingots 846
Experimental Procedure 847
The Compounds Generated by Mg Burning 847
SEM Analyses of Inclusions in the Al Melt 847
The Nitridation Reaction of Al and Mg 849
The Thermodynamic Stability of the Various Reactions 849
The Condition of Generating Mg3N2 850
Conclusion 853
References 853
116 Experimental Study and Numerical Analysis of Cracking During DC Casting of Large Dimension 7075 Aluminium Billets 854
Abstract 854
Introduction 854
Microstructure Model 854
Process Model 855
Industrial Trials 855
Microstructure Simulations 856
Process Simulations 857
Summary 858
Acknowledgements 858
References 859
117 The Benefits of Ultrasonic Treatment of Molten Metal for Slabs Casting at UC RUSAL Facilities 860
Abstract 860
Introduction 860
Experimental Technique 861
Results of Examination 862
Conclusion 863
References 864
118 Effect of Ultrasonic Melt-Treatment and Cooling Rate on Microstructure of Multi-phase Reinforced Al Alloy 865
Abstract 865
Introduction 865
Experimental 865
Results and Discussions 866
Conclusions 868
Acknowledgements 868
References 868
119 XPS Examination of the Oxide-Metal Interface of an Aluminum–Magnesium Alloy Containing Beryllium 870
Abstract 870
Introduction 870
Experimental Procedure 871
Results 871
XPS Results of 2 and 100 ppm Samples 871
SEM Images of 360 Minute Sample with 100 ppm 872
SEM and FIB Examination of All Samples 873
Discussion 874
Conclusion 876
Acknowledgements 876
References 876
120 Innovative Technology for a Flawless Rolling Slab Casting Process 877
Abstract 877
References 883
121 Robustness of Forged Part Mechanical Properties to Casting, Forging and Heat Treating Process Variation 884
Abstract 884
Introduction 884
Flextreme™ Casting 884
BFAT’s Facilities 885
Process Variability Study 886
Discussion 888
Conclusion 890
References 891
122 Analysis of Laser Marking Performance on Various Non-ferrous Metals 892
Abstract 892
Introduction 892
Experiment 893
Results 894
Conclusion 896
References 896
123 Continuous Casted Aluminum Flat Products Corrosion Characteristic According to Downstream Process 897
Abstract 897
Introduction 897
Experimental Studies 898
Results and Discussion 899
Conclusions 906
References 906
124 Controlling the Microstructural Evolution During Soft Annealing of Cold Rolled Twin-Roll Cast AlMnMg Alloys by Homogenization Heat Treatment 907
Abstract 907
Introduction 907
Experimental Studies 908
Results and Discussion 908
Conclusions 911
Acknowledgements 911
References 911
125 Investigation of Elemental Distribution in the Sheet Sections After Aluminum Continuous Sheet Casting, Cold Rolling and Heat Treatment Processes 913
Abstract 913
Introduction 913
Experimental Work 914
Results and Discussion 914
Macro and Micro Structure Images, EDS Elemental Distribution and Interpretations 914
Microstructure Images and EDS Elemental Distributions of 1 Mm Thickened and Final Annealed Samples After Casting 918
Conclusion 922
References 923
126 Tailoring the Materials Properties with a Holistic Approach from Casting to Back Annealing 924
Abstract 924
Introduction 924
Experimental Studies 925
Results and Discussion 925
Conclusions 928
Acknowledgements 928
References 928
127 Study of the Effect of Surface—Roughness of Dies and Tooling for HPDC on Soldering 929
Abstract 929
Introduction 929
Materials and Methods 930
Adhesion of Soldered Alloy 930
Results and Discussion 931
Conclusions 932
References 933
128 Electrochemical Characterization of Al–Li–Cu–Mg Alloys 934
Abstract 934
Introduction 934
Materials and Methods 934
Results and Discussion 936
Conclusions 940
Acknowledgements 940
References 940
129 Shaping the Mechanical Properties of AlSi30 Alloy Cast by Rapid Solidification 941
Abstract 941
Introduction 941
Methodology 941
Results 942
Summary 947
Acknowledgements 947
References 947
Cast Shop Technology: Energy Joint Session 948
130 Productivity and Energy Efficiency Improvements at Two Reverberatory Furnaces at Alcoa, Norway 949
Abstract 949
Introduction 949
Challenge 950
Low-Temperature Oxyfuel 951
Low-Temperature Oxyfuel Installation at Alcoa Mosjoen 952
Results and Conclusions 954
Reference 954
131 The Application of ALTEK Stirring Technology to a 90MT Melting Furnace at ALCOA Moesjen, Norway 955
Abstract 955
Introduction 955
Why Stir—The Basics of Efficient Heat Transfer 955
ALTEK SIBER FORCE™ Technology 956
Safety Considerations 957
ALTEK Stirrer Installation at ALCOA Moesjen, Norway 957
Bottom Mounted Stirrer Operation 957
Operational Results at ALCOA Moesjen 959
Melt Rate 959
Energy Savings 959
Dross Generation 959
Alloying Efficiency 960
ALTEK Stirrer Installation at ALCOA Warrick, USA 960
Development of EM Stirring for Side Mounted Application on Round Top Charge “Dome” Type Furnace 960
Modelling Considerations 961
Initial Operational Results 961
Summary 962
References 962
132 Case Study of Air Cooled Electromagnetic Stirred Melting Furnace at Hydro Henderson 963
Abstract 963
Introduction 963
Why Stir? 963
The Altek Siberforce® Technology 965
Inductor Design 965
Control System 965
Cooling Medium 966
Installation Types 966
Hydro Henderson Installation 967
Performance Testing 968
Cycle Time 969
Melt Rate 970
Energy Consumption 970
Dross Generation 970
Summary 971
References 971
133 Efficiency of the Casting Process Starts in the Melt Shop 972
Abstract 972
Melting Process 972
Gas Consumption 974
Metal Loss 974
Total Savings 974
Energy Rebate Programs 975
Cleaning Practices 975
Automation 976
Charging Bins 976
Standard Charging Units 976
Over/Under Charging Conveyor 976
Scrap Return Conveyor 976
Automatically Guided Vehicles 977
Summary 977
Reference 977
134 Praxair’s OPTIVIEWTM Image Analysis System for Enhanced Combustion Control on Aluminum Tilting Rotary Furnace 978
Abstract 978
Introduction 978
Industrial Scale Proof of Concept Tests 979
Optiview Integration 979
Results and Discussion 980
Conclusions 982
135 Aluminum Melting Furnace Pressure Control 983
Abstract 983
Introduction 983
Furnace Pressure 983
Pressure Control 986
Conclusion 986
References 986
136 Resource Efficiency Analysis of High Pressure Die Casting Process 987
Abstract 987
Introduction 987
Research Methodology 987
Case Study—Aluminium Engine Blocks 988
Aluminium Production and Recycling 988
Primary Aluminium Production 988
Secondary Aluminium 988
Other Alloying Materials Production Energy 989
Aluminium Refining 989
Multiple Life Cycle Method 989
Aluminium Recycling Route 990
Calculation of Embodied Energy 991
Aluminium Ingot 991
In House Recycling 991
Total Embodied Energy for HPDC 991
Key Findings 991
Sec16 993
Acknowledgements 993
References 993
137 Gas Fired Holding Furnace Modeling for Efficient Operation 994
Abstract 994
Introduction 994
CFD Model and Furnace Configurations 995
Results and Discussion 995
Future Work 999
Conclusions 999
References 1000
Cast Shop Technology: Fundamentals of Aluminum Alloy Solidification Joint Session 1001
138 In Situ Study of Solidification Kinetics of Al–Cu and Al–Ce–Mg Alloys with Application of Neutron Diffraction 1002
Abstract 1002
Introduction 1002
Experimental Procedure 1003
Neutron Diffraction 1003
Process Parameters 1003
Data Analysis 1003
Results 1004
Microstructure 1004
Diffraction Pattern 1005
Fraction Solid 1006
Conclusions 1007
Acknowledgements 1007
References 1007
139 Quantifying the Effects of Grain Refiner Addition on the Solidification of Fe-Rich Intermetallics in Al–Si–Cu Alloys Using In Situ Synchrotron X-Ray Tomography 1009
Abstract 1009
Introduction 1009
Methods 1010
Results and Discussion 1011
Conclusions 1014
Acknowledgements 1014
References 1014
140 An Investigation on Si Refinement Mechanism of Hypereutectic Al-Si via Applying Ultrasonic Vibrations 1016
Abstract 1016
Introduction 1016
Experiment 1017
Results 1017
Discussion 1017
Refinement Mechanism 1017
De-agglomeration and Distribution of Particles 1020
Mechanical Properties 1020
Conclusion 1020
Acknowledgements 1020
References 1020
141 Observations of Microhardness and Evolution of Constituents in Al–Zn and Zn–Al Specimens with Columnar-to-Equiaxed Grain Transition 1021
Abstract 1021
Introduction 1021
Materials and Methods 1022
Results and Discussion 1023
Conclusions 1028
Acknowledgements 1028
References 1028
142 Impact of Inlet Flow on Macrosegregation Formation Accounting for Grain Motion and Morphology Evolution in DC Casting of Aluminium 1029
Abstract 1029
Introduction 1029
Numerical Model 1030
Problem Description 1030
Results and Discussion 1031
Conclusions 1035
Acknowledgements 1036
References 1036
143 Effects of Microstructure on Hot Cracking Behavior in Al–Zn–Mg–Cu Alloys 1037
Abstract 1037
Introduction 1037
Experimental 1037
Casting 1038
Microstructural Analysis 1039
Comparison of Microstructures 1040
Eutectic Constituents 1040
Porosity 1041
Fe-Bearing Constituents 1041
MgsSi 1041
Examination of Hot Cracks 1041
7075 1042
Alloy XB 1042
Conclusion 1044
References 1044
144 Effective Nanoparticles Feeding Treatment in Casting of A356/ZrO2 Nano-reinforced Composite 1045
Abstract 1045
Introduction 1045
Experimental Work 1046
Material Preparation 1046
Microstructure Examination 1047
Mechanical Testing 1047
Results and Discussion 1047
Microstructural Evolution 1047
Mechanical Properties 1048
Conclusions 1050
References 1051
Cast Shop Technology: Recycling and Sustainability Joint Session 1052
145 Recycling of Oxide from Dross into Aluminum Electrolysis Cells 1053
Abstract 1053
Introduction 1053
Experiments 1053
Dross Samples and Characterisation 1053
Dross Separation 1053
Results 1054
Dross Separation in Plasma Rotary Furnace 1054
Metal Characterisation 1056
Oxide Characterisation 1056
Particle Size Distribution 1056
XRD 1057
XRF 1058
Discussion 1058
Particle Size Distribution 1058
Crystal Structure and Element Composition of Oxide from Dross 1058
Trace Elements in Oxide 1059
Conclusion 1059
Acknowledgements 1059
References 1059
146 Behavior of Mg–Si-Rich Phases in Aluminum Can Sheets and Their Impact on Metal Oxidation During Industrial Thermal Pre-treatment 1060
Abstract 1060
Introduction 1060
Literature Survey on Can Alloy Oxidation During Thermal Pre-treatment 1061
Experiment Procedure 1062
Results and Discussion 1062
Deduction of the Oxidation Mechanism and Industry Recommendation 1065
Acknowledgements 1067
References 1067
147 Potential for Handheld Analyzers to Address Emerging Positive Material Identification (PMI) Challenges 1068
Abstract 1068
Introduction 1068
Methods 1069
Results and Discussion 1069
Acknowledgements 1072
References 1072
148 Dissipative Use of Critical Metals in the Aluminum Industry 1073
Abstract 1073
Introduction 1073
References 1075
149 In Situ Observation of Dross Formation During Melting of Al–Mg Alloy 1076
Abstract 1076
Introduction 1076
Experiment 1076
Results and Discussion 1077
Conclusions 1080
Acknowledgements 1080
References 1080
150 The Implementation of a Comprehensive Dross Management Program at Constellium Ravenswood 1082
Abstract 1082
Introduction 1082
The Handling of Dross Once Skimmed 1083
The Principles of the Dross Press 1083
The Dross Processor 1084
Constellium Dross Press Installation 1085
Working with the Dross Processor 1086
Results 1086
Summary 1088
References 1088
151 Environmental Impacts of Aluminum Dross After Metal Extraction 1089
Abstract 1089
Introduction 1089
Aluminum Carbide 1090
Aluminum Phosphide 1090
Aluminum Sulfide 1091
Aluminum Nitride 1091
Experimental Procedure 1092
Results and Discussion 1092
Conclusions 1095
References 1095
152 Promotion of Separation of Two-Phase Liquid Metals by Applying Mechanical Vibration 1096
Abstract 1096
Introduction 1096
Experimental Method 1096
Results and Discussion 1097
Conclusion 1098
References 1099
Electrode Technology Symposium for Aluminum Production 1100
153 Influence of Crushing Technology and Particle Shape on the Bulk Density of Anode Grade Petroleum Coke 1101
Abstract 1101
Introduction 1101
Background 1101
Previous Work 1101
QICPIC Particle Analysis 1102
Particle Size Determined by the QICPIC 1103
Particle Shape (Factor) Determined by the QICPIC 1103
Convexity 1103
Sphericity 1103
Aspect Ratio 1103
Background Summary and Project Objectives 1103
Experimental 1103
Coke Sample Preparation and Test Crushing 1103
Bulk Density Test Procedure 1104
Results 1104
Particle Shape 1104
Convexity 1104
Sphericity 1105
Aspect Ratio 1105
Particle Shape and Bulk Density Correlation 1105
Effect of Particle Convexity on Coke Bulk Density 1107
Effect of Particle Sphericity on Coke Bulk Density 1107
Effect of Particle Aspect Ratio (AR) on Coke Bulk Density 1107
Discussion 1107
Conclusions 1109
References 1109
154 Study on the Calcination Performance and Desulfurization Mechanism of Petroleum Cokes with Different Sulfur Contents Between 700 and 1100 °C 1110
Abstract 1110
Introduction 1110
Experimental 1110
Raw Materials 1110
Experimental Apparatus 1111
Preparation of Calcined Raw Materials 1111
Result Analysis 1111
TG and DTG Curves 1111
Resistivity 1112
Real Density 1112
Ash 1113
Volatiles 1113
Sulfur Content 1113
Trace Elements 1114
The Growth of Carbon Lattice Lc 1116
Closed Porosity 1116
SEM Characterization of Calcined Cokes 1116
Conclusion 1117
References 1118
155 Rotary Hearth Calcining of Petroleum Cokes 1119
Abstract 1119
Calcining Processes 1119
Shaft Furnace 1119
Rotary Kiln 1119
Rotary Hearth 1120
Comparison of Processes 1123
Emissions 1123
Refractory Maintenance and Reliability 1123
Product Quality 1123
Stoppage Impact 1123
Yield 1123
Operational Flexibility 1123
Costs 1124
Capital Costs 1124
Operating Costs 1124
Conclusion 1125
156 Effects of High-Sulfur Cokes on Physicochemical Properties of Prebaked Anodes in Aluminium Electrolysis 1126
Abstract 1126
Introduction 1126
Experimental Data Comparison 1127
Sulfur Content of High/Low Sulfur Coke in Prebaked Anode Production 1127
Trace Elements Changes of Prebaked Anode Made of High/Low Sulfur Cokes 1127
Results and Discussion 1127
CO2 Reaction Theoretical Calculation of S Content in High/Low Sulfur Coke Prebaked Anode 1127
The Influence of Trace Elements in High/Low Sulfur Coke Prebaked Anodes on Air and CO2 Reactivity 1127
Comparison of Air and CO2 Reactivity Between the Anodes Made from High and Low Sulfur Cokes 1129
High/Low Sulfur Coke Prebaked Anode Comprehensive Property Comparison 1130
Conclusion 1130
References 1131
157 The Research and Industrial Application of an Improved Impact Cleaning Technology of the Double Anode Butts in Aluminium Electrolysis 1132
Abstract 1132
Introduction 1132
Impact of Butt Cleaning Quality on the Anode 1132
Impact of Trace Elements on Quality of the Pre-baked Anode 1132
Impact of Butt on Quality of Anode 1133
Current Situation of Butt Cleaning 1133
Manual Cleaning 1133
Automatic Butt Cleaning Technique 1133
Technical Characteristics of the New Double-Butt Shot Blasting Equipment 1133
Double-Butt Mobile Plug-in Online Rotary Shot Blasting Technique 1134
Mobile Plug-in Slewing Mechanism 1134
Automatic Rod Unlocking Technology 1134
Forced Steel Shot Runaway Mechanism 1134
Double-Butt Online Shot Blasting Technology 1135
Optimization of Steel Shot Formula 1135
Shot and Dust Separation Technology 1135
Residual Steel Shot Purging Separation Technology 1135
Comparison of Product Quality Before and After Application of the New Double-Butt Shot Blasting Technology 1136
Conclusions 1136
References 1136
158 Analysis of Material Balance Based on the Calcination Performance of a Chamber Calciner 1137
Abstract 1137
Foreword 1137
The Problems in the Material Balance Calculation of the Existing Chamber Calciner 1137
Chamber Calciner Material Balance Analysis Calculation Method Based on Calcination Characteristics 1139
Conclusions 1142
References 1142
159 Formation of Aluminium Carbide in Hall-Héroult Electrolysis Cell Environments 1143
Abstract 1143
Introduction 1143
Experimental 1144
Results 1145
Experiments Without Polarisation 1145
Experiments with Polarisation 1145
Polarisation with a Conventional Cell 1145
Polarisation with an Invert Cell 1146
Inverted Cell with Initial Presence of Aluminium 1146
Inverted Cell Without Aluminium Present Initially 1147
Analysis of Anode Surfaces After Polarisation Tests 1147
Discussion 1148
Conclusions 1150
Acknowledgements 1150
References 1150
160 The Research and Trial of the Aluminum Electrolysis Cells with Current Out from the Bottom 1151
Abstract 1151
Introduction 1151
The Cathode Structure Research [1] 1151
Physical Field Simulation and Optimization 1152
The Simulation Analysis of Magnetic Field 1153
The Simulation Analysis of Flow Field 1153
The Simulation Analysis of Thermal Field 1155
The Industrial Test of the Cell with Current Flowing from the Bottom [2] 1155
Conclusion 1156
Acknowledgements 1156
References 1156
161 Laboratory Study of the Impact of the Cathode Grade on the Formation of Deposits on the Cathode Surface in Hall-Héroult Cells 1157
Abstract 1157
Introduction 1157
Methodology 1158
Experimental Setup 1158
Autopsies and Characterization 1159
Results 1159
Aluminium Carbide Observation 1159
Ledge and Sludge Observations 1159
Discussion 1160
Aluminium Carbide Layer—Effect of Porosity 1160
Central Sludge 1160
Conclusions 1161
Aluminium Carbide Behaviour 1161
Sludge Formation 1161
References 1161
162 Understanding the Anode Porosity as a Means for Improved Aluminium Smelting 1162
Abstract 1162
Introduction 1162
Experimental Procedure 1163
Materials 1163
Analytical Technique 1163
Pore Volume with Mercury Intrusion 1163
Pore Classification Using Optical Microscopy 1163
Pore Volume with X-Ray Tomography 1164
Impurity Levels 1164
Results and Discussion 1164
Density and Porosity 1164
Pore Size Distribution and Classification 1165
Anode Reactivity and Permeability 1166
Conclusion 1168
Acknowledgements 1168
References 1168
163 Effect of Changes in Anode Top Cover Composition on Anode Butt Quality 1170
Abstract 1170
Background 1170
Impact of Changing Cover Material on Carbon Plant 1170
ACRM Alumina Injection 1171
Importance of Anode Cover Recycled Material 1171
Anode Butt Quality 1171
Stages of Butt Cleaning—Summary 1171
Detailed Viewpoint of an Anode Butt 1171
Methodology and Data Collection 1172
Interaction Between Alumina Content in ACRM and Bath Area Variables 1172
Modeling Relationships—Plant Level 1175
Sub Model 1-Total Bath Area 1175
Sub Model 2-Bath Area on Bottom of the Anode 1175
Sub Model 3-Bath Area on Top of the Anode 1175
Optimized ACRM Anode Cover 1176
Anode Crush Recycle Material Inventory 1176
Conclusions 1177
References 1177
164 Inert Anodes—the Blind Alley to Environmental Friendliness? 1179
Abstract 1179
Introduction 1179
Energy Consumption 1180
Minimum Energy Consumption 1180
Cell Voltage 1180
Energy Balance and Heat Losses 1181
Wetted Cathodes 1182
Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1183
Carbon Dioxide 1183
Perfluorocarbon 1184
Carbon Capture from Aluminium Plants 1185
Concluding Remarks 1185
Acknowledgements 1186
References 1186
165 Role of the Porosity of Carbon Anodes in the Nucleation and Growth of Gas Bubbles 1187
Abstract 1187
Introduction 1187
Experimental Method 1188
Sample Preparation 1188
Image Analysis 1188
Results and Discussion 1188
Conclusions 1191
Acknowledgements 1191
References 1191
166 Challenges and Successes of Conducting Trials for Anode Design Modification 1192
Abstract 1192
Introduction 1192
Trial Overview 1192
Confirming the Starting Point 1193
Choosing a Final Design 1193
Before Commencing a Trial for Anode Design Modification 1194
Go, No-Go Decisions 1194
How Many Trial Anodes are Needed? 1194
Executing a Trial for Anode Design Modification 1194
Logistical Challenges 1194
Checking Quality 1195
Risk Assessment 1195
Confirming Impact on Reduction Line KPIs 1195
Confirming You Have not Introduced a Cracking Issue 1196
Carbon Under Stub Assessment 1196
Validating the Voltage Improvement in the Plant 1197
Validating the Voltage Improvement Off-line 1197
Post-trial Analysis 1198
Fifteen Lessons to Share with Smelting Technologists 1198
Acknowledgements 1199
References 1199
167 Study on Optimization of Anode Structure for Aluminum Reduction Cell 1200
Abstract 1200
Introduction 1200
Study on Optimization of Anode Structure 1200
The Types of Anode Block 1200
Current Distribution of Anode Block 1200
Voltage Drop of Anode Block 1201
Temperature Distribution of Anode Block 1202
Stress Distribution of Anode Block 1202
Anode Consumption 1203
Study on Optimization of Different Top Surface Structure 1206
Response Charts of Parameters 1206
Optimization Analysis Results 1206
Economic Benefit 1209
Conclusion 1209
Acknowledgements 1209
References 1209
168 Effect of Cover Material on the Oxidation Speed of Prebaked Anodes 1210
Abstract 1210
Preface 1210
Experiment 1210
Materials 1210
Method 1210
Result and Discussion 1211
Conclusions 1213
References 1213
169 Interaction Between Anode Aggregate and Binder in the Sessile Drop Wetting Test 1214
Abstract 1214
Introduction 1214
Materials and Sample Preparation 1215
Materials 1215
Methods and Equipment 1215
Preparation of Substrate 1215
Preparation of Pitch Samples 1216
Instrumentation 1216
Parameter Settings 1217
Wetting Curves 1217
Results 1218
Study 1: Effect of Coke Particle Size—Solid Pitch Droplet on Substrate 1218
Study 2: Effect of Butts Impurity on Wetting 1219
Study 3: Liquid Pitch on a Hot Coke Bed 1220
Conclusions 1220
References 1221
170 Development and Application of Large-Scale Shaft Kilns 1222
Abstract 1222
Preface 1222
The Design Approach Used to Develop the Large-Scale Shaft Kilns 1222
Simulation Technology 1223
Heat Insulation and Sealing Technology 1224
Preheat Air Cooling Technology 1224
Volatile Outlet Technology 1224
Auto Loading and Discharging Technology 1224
Real-Time Monitoring and Control Technology 1224
Industrial Applications of Large-Scale Shaft Kilns 1224
Output 1225
Quality 1225
Yield Rate 1225
Conclusion 1226
References 1227
171 Study on the Property and Desulfurization Mechanisms of Petroleum Cokes with Different Sulfur Contents from 1200 to 2800 °C 1228
Abstract 1228
Introduction 1228
Experimental 1228
Raw Materials 1228
Equipment and Instruments 1229
Laboratory Calciner Heating Curve 1229
Heating Curve of Graphitization Furnace 1229
Results and Discussion 1229
Resistivity 1230
Real Density 1230
Ash 1231
Volatile 1231
Sulfur Content 1231
Element Content 1232
Carbon Lattice 1234
Closed Porosity 1235
SEM Image 1235
Conclusion 1237
References 1238
172 The Current Status and Development Trend of the Prebaked Anode Market in China 1239
Abstract 1239
Introduction 1239
Analysis of the Current Status 1239
Industry Overview 1239
Process Technology Situation 1240
The Technology of Raw Material Homogenizing and Calcination 1240
High Efficient Mixing and Molding Technology 1240
Energy Saving Baking Technology 1240
Anode Butts Automatic Cleaning Technology 1241
Energy Recovery Technology 1241
Off Gas Comprehensive Control Technology 1241
Research in Leading-Edge Technologies 1241
Product Quality and Determination 1241
The Main Problems 1241
Development Prospect 1242
Keep Production Capacity Increase Mildly 1242
Better Industry Layout 1242
Actively Cooperate with Upstream and Downstream Industries 1242
Increase Investment in Environmental Governance and Research 1243
Optimizing Production Management, the Realization of Intelligent Manufacturing 1244
Development of Desulfurization Technology 1244
Active Development of New Anode Coke Source and the Technology Reducing Anode Consumption 1244
Summary 1244
References 1244
173 Transport of Sodium in TiB2 Materials Investigated by a Laboratory Test and DFT Calculations 1245
Abstract 1245
Introduction 1245
Experimental 1245
Computational Details 1246
Results 1247
Thermogravimetric Test 1247
Transport Properties of Na in TiB2 Studied by DFT 1249
Defects in TiB2 1249
Diffusion Barriers of Na in TiB2 Materials 1250
Discussion 1250
Chemical Stability of TiB2 Material in Na Environment 1250
Conclusion 1251
Acknowledgements 1251
References 1251
174 Multi-scale Modelling of Titanium Diboride Degradation Using Crystal Elasticity Model and Density Functional Theory 1253
Abstract 1253
Introduction 1253
Material and Microstructure 1254
Multiscale Modelling 1255
Finite Element Model 1255
Material Models 1256
Identification of Material Parameters 1257
Results 1257
Influence of Average Grain Size 1257
Influence of the Properties of the Secondary Phases 1258
Discussion and Conclusion 1260
Acknowledgements 1260
References 1260
175 Simulation on the Initial Stage of Sodium–Graphite Intercalation Using First-Principles Calculation 1261
Abstract 1261
Introduction 1261
Computational Methods 1262
Results and Discussion 1262
Preferred Site for Sodium Adsorption on a Single Layer Graphene 1262
Effect of Sodium Coverage on the Stability of Na–C Structure 1263
Effect of Na Adsorption on Electronic Structure 1265
Conclusions 1267
Acknowledgements 1267
References 1267
176 Cathode Structure Optimization Research for Aluminum Reduction Cell 1268
Abstract 1268
Introduction 1268
Simulation Results and Analysis 1268
Electric Field of Traditional Cathode 1268
Partial Insulation Steel Bar 1269
Low Resistivity Steel Bar 1270
Copper Collector Bar 1270
Comparative Analysis 1270
Conclusions 1275
Acknowledgements 1275
References 1275
177 Research on the Penetration of a Potassium-Based Electrolyte into Dry Barrier Materials 1276
Abstract 1276
Introduction 1276
Anti-penetration Theory 1276
Main Performance Indexes 1277
Penetration Experiments 1277
Experimental Material 1277
Experimental Equipment 1277
Experimental Method 1277
Test Results 1279
Different Electrolytes 1279
Different Al2O3/SiO2 Ratios 1280
Influence of Additives 1281
Different Crucibles 1281
Results Analysis 1282
Conclusions 1283
References 1284
178 Development and Application of Electrocalciners with Increased Calcination Temperature 1285
Abstract 1285
Background 1285
Development Status in China and Abroad 1285
Simulation Analysis 1286
Theoretical Analysis 1286
Finite Element Model 1286
Analysis of Heat Balance 1287
Designed Indexes of High Temperature Graphitization Furnace 1289
Application Situation 1289
Conclusions 1292
Acknowledgements 1292
References 1292
179 3D Transient Modelling of a Complete Fire Line for Anode Baking Furnace Design and Optimization 1294
Abstract 1294
Introduction 1294
Model Description 1294
General Presentation 1294
Model Inputs 1295
Phenomena Taken into Account 1296
Temperature Initialization and Convergence 1297
The Output of the Model 1298
Calibration and Validation of the Model 1298
Conclusion and Perspectives 1299
References 1299
180 A Study of Anode Baking Gas Composition 1300
Abstract 1300
Introduction 1300
Experimental 1301
Results and Discussion 1302
Initial Sampling 1302
Long Term Sampling 1302
Variance in Flue Gas Composition 1305
Conclusions and Further Work 1306
Acknowledgements 1306
References 1306
181 Improved Compaction Method for the Production of Large Scale Anode Paste Samples for Thermomechanical Characterization 1307
Abstract 1307
Introduction 1307
Methodology 1308
Preparation of Paste Samples 1308
Compaction Method 1308
Feeding Rate 1309
Dynamic Calibration of Temperature 1310
Results and Discussion 1310
Conclusion 1315
Acknowledgements 1315
References 1316
182 Systemic Analysis for the Selection of Anode Baking Furnace Refractories 1317
Abstract 1317
Introduction 1317
Materials and Techniques 1318
Results and Discussion 1318
Final Remarks 1321
References 1321
183 Numerical Investigation of the Thermomechanical Behaviour of Anode Butt 1322
Abstract 1322
Introduction 1322
Problem Statement 1322
Approach 1323
Geometry of the Finite Element Model 1323
Type of Analysis Used 1323
Boundary Conditions and Model Validation 1323
Thermo-electrical Analysis: In Operation 1324
Transient Thermal Analysis: During Cooling 1325
Thermomechanical Analysis 1325
Failure Criterion 1325
Potential of Carbon Cracking 1325
Hypothesis of the Study 1325
Results and Interpretations 1326
Thermomechanical Behaviour in Operation 1326
Thermomechanical Behaviour During Cooling 1328
Sensitivity Study 1329
Conclusion 1331
Acknowledgements 1331
References 1331
184 Method of Defining the Degree of Impregnation of the Dry Aggregate with Pitch in the Process of Anode Production 1332
Abstract 1332
Introduction 1332
Discussion 1333
Conclusion 1336
References 1336
185 Research and Application for Large Scale, High Efficiency and Energy Saving Baking Furnace Technology 1337
Abstract 1337
Introduction 1337
Optimization of Furnace Structure and Process Parameters 1337
Layout of the Furnace 1337
Pressure Loss Optimization Along the Fume Flow Path 1338
Temperature Homogeneous in Pit 1339
ARFS Firing Control System 1339
Performance of the Baking Furnace 1340
Pressure Distribution in the Flue 1340
Combustion of the Volatile Matter 1340
Temperature Distribution in the Flue 1340
Anode Temperature Homogeneous 1340
Energy and Power Consumption 1341
Quality of the Products 1341
Conclusion 1341
Acknowledgements 1341
References 1341
186 Opportunities and Challenges Associated to Green Anode Plant Upgrade For Smelter Amperage Creeping 1342
Abstract 1342
Introduction 1342
Creeping Impact on Carbon Sector 1342
Amperage Creeping Impact on the Green Anode Plant 1343
Challenges 1343
Paste Throughput Remains Unchanged 1343
Paste Throughput Is Increased 1344
Opportunities 1345
Recent Case Studies 1346
Conclusion 1349
References 1349
Perfluorocarbon Generation and Emissions from Industrial Processes 1350
187 Conditions and Mechanisms of Gas Emissions from Didymium Electrolysis and Its Process Control 1351
Abstract 1351
Introduction 1351
Experimental 1351
Results and Discussion 1352
Process Window/off-Gas Composition 1352
Influence of Praseodymium Fluoride and Oxide on PFC Emission 1354
Influence of Praseodymium Valence on Process Window and off-Gas Composition 1354
Principle and Implementation of Process Control 1354
Conclusion and Outlook 1355
Acknowledgements 1356
References 1356
188 Perfluorocarbon Formation During Rare Earth Electrolysis 1358
Abstract 1358
Introduction 1358
Experimental 1359
Optimization of the Anodic Current Density—Linear Sweep Voltammetry (LSV) 1359
Lab-Scale Electrolysis with on-Line FTIR Gas Analysis 1359
Results and Discussion 1360
LSV Studies of Anode Effect 1360
Lab-Scale Electrolysis with on-Line FTIR Gas Analysis 1360
Summary and Concluding Remarks 1362
Acknowledgements 1363
References 1363
189 PFC Evolution Characteristics During Aluminium and Rare Earth Electrolysis 1364
Abstract 1364
Introduction 1364
Theory 1365
Experimental 1365
Results and Discussion 1367
Voltages 1367
SiF4 1367
CO2 and CF4 Correlation 1369
Hard and Soft Anode Effect 1369
CF4 and C2F6 1370
Conclusions 1370
Acknowledgements 1370
References 1370
190 Evaluation of Time Consistency When Quantifying Emissions of Perfluorocarbons Resulting from Low Voltage Anode Effects 1371
Abstract 1371
Introduction 1371
Quantifying HVAE 1372
Estimating LVAE 1372
Methodology for the Quantification Method 1373
Results and Discussion 1373
LVAE/HVAE Ratio 1373
Tier 1 and Tier 2 Estimates Compared to Direct Measurement (Tier 3) 1374
LVAE Contribution to Total Emissions 1375
Conclusion 1376
Acknowledgements 1376
References 1376
191 Low Voltage PFC Measurements and Potential Alternative to Reduce Them at Alcoa Smelters 1377
Abstract 1377
Introduction 1377
Experimental 1378
Results and Discussion 1378
Measurement of Percentage of LV-PFC from Total PFC Emissions Using Combination of FTIR and Gas Bags Sampling 1379
Conclusions 1380
Acknowledgements 1381
References 1381
192 New Approach for Quantification of Perfluorocarbons Resulting from High Voltage Anode Effects 1382
Abstract 1382
Introduction 1382
Anode Effect Mechanisms and Quantification of Emissions 1383
Generation of Perfluorocarbons Caused by Anode Effects 1383
Standard Quantification Methodology 1383
Newly Proposed Quantification Models 1384
Quantification of CF4 1384
Quantification of C2F6 1385
Collection of Data: Gas Measurements 1385
Results and Discussion 1385
Efficiency of the Different Models to Estimate Individual HVAE Emissions 1385
Efficiency of CF4 Predictions 1386
Efficiency of C2F6 Predictions 1386
Comparison of the Different Models to Account for HVAE Emissions for Smelters 1387
Simplified Approach Using Monthly Averages and Non-linear Models 1388
Conclusion 1390
Acknowledgements 1390
References 1390
193 New Algorithm for Calculating CF4 Emissions from High Voltage Anode Effects 1391
Abstract 1391
Introduction 1391
Current Calculation Methodology 1392
Data Analysis 1392
Data Scatter and Measurement Error 1393
Predictive Models 1393
Performance of the Overall Model 1394
Conclusions 1396
References 1397
194 Validation of Online Monitoring of PFC by QCL with FTIR Spectroscopy 1398
Abstract 1398
Introduction 1398
Experimental 1399
Results and Discussion 1399
FTIR Calibration and Response Time Calculations 1399
Estimation of Detection Limits 1399
Comparison Between FTIR and QCL 1399
Influence of CH4 1401
Conclusions 1403
References 1403
195 PFC Emission Reduction in the Semiconductor Industry 1405
Abstract 1405
Introduction 1405
1990s—WSC 2010 Initiative 1405
Post-2010: WSC 2020 Initiative 1406
Conclusions 1408
References 1408
196 Challenges in Estimating Global CF4 and C2F6 Emissions 1409
Abstract 1409
Introduction 1409
CF4, C2F6 Emissions from the Industries 1409
Aluminium Industry 1409
Semiconductor Industry 1410
Rare Earth Smelting 1412
Challenges and limitations in Estimating PFC Emissions 1412
Aluminium Industry 1413
Semiconductor Industry 1413
Rare earth Smelting Industry 1415
Discussion—Conclusion—Future work 1415
References 1415
197 An Estimation of PFC Emission by Rare Earth Electrolysis 1417
Abstract 1417
Introduction 1417
Technology of Rare Earth Smelting 1417
Estimate of the Annual Amount of Rare Earth Metal Production 1419
Estimate of PFC Emission by Rare Earth Electrolysis 1420
Theory of PFC Emission of the Neodymium Electrolysis 1420
Experimental Study of PFC Emission by the Rare Earth Electrolysis 1421
Scenarios of the Annual PFC Emission by Rare Earth Industry 1423
Regional Distribution of PFC Emission 1424
Conclusion 1425
References 1426
198 Updated Factors for Calculating PFC Emissions from Primary Aluminum Production 1428
Abstract 1428
Introduction 1428
Data Sources 1429
Definition of Technology Categories and Updated Tier 1 Emission Factors 1429
Updated Tier 1 Emission Factors and Tier 2 Slope and RC2F6/CF4 Equation Coefficients 1429
Updated Emission Factors 1429
Trends in Emission Factors and Comparison with 2006 IPCC Coefficients 1431
Proposed Approach for Estimating LVAE CF4 Emissions 1431
Recommended Update to Tier 2 CF4 Slope and RC2F6/CF4 Coefficients 1432
Conclusions 1433
References 1434
199 PFCs from the Chinese Aluminium Sector—Challenges in Emissions Accounting and Further Characteristics 1435
Abstract 1435
Introduction 1435
PFCs and Anode Effects 1435
Global Inventory of PFC Emissions 1436
Tier 1 Emission Factors for Chinese Aluminium Sector 1436
Chinese Anode Effect Workshop and Survey 1436
The Challenge of Inconsistent Basis for AE Statistics 1437
Case Study—Example AE Data from One Smelter in China 1439
Characteristics of PFCs from Low-Medium KA Technologies in China 1439
Investigating Links Between LV-AE Emissions and Amperage 1440
Correlation Between PFC Emissions and Smelter Performance 1441
Discussion 1441
PFCs in the Context of Aluminium Industry GHGs in China 1441
Recommendations for Conducting AE Surveys in China 1442
Alternative Approaches for PFC Accounting in China 1442
Conclusions 1442
Acknowledgements 1443
References 1443
Scandium Extraction and Use in Aluminum Alloys 1444
200 Scandium Recovery from the Nyngan Laterite Project in NSW 1445
Abstract 1445
The Scandium Market 1445
Potential Sources of Scandium 1446
Scandium from Laterites as a by-Product 1446
Scandium from Laterites as a Primary Product 1446
The Nyngan Scandium Project 1447
Tailings Disposal 1447
Master Alloy Production 1448
Conclusions 1449
Acknowledgements 1449
References 1449
201 Extraction of Scandium from Lateritic Nickel-Cobalt Ore Leach Solution by Ion Exchange: A Special Study and Literature Review on Previous Works 1450
Abstract 1450
Introduction 1450
Literature Review on Previous Works About Extraction of Scandium by Ion Exchange Chromatography 1451
Extraction of Scandium from Aluminum Ores 1451
Extraction of Scandium from Lateritic Nickel-Cobalt Ores 1452
Extraction of Scandium from Titanium Containing Residues 1453
Extraction of Scandium from Tungsten Ores 1453
Extraction of Scandium from Uranium Ores and Phosphogypsum 1454
Material and Methodology 1454
Characterization of Material 1454
Experimental Methodology 1455
Results and Discussion 1455
Chemical Analysis 1455
Resin Shaking Tests 1455
Conclusion 1457
References 1457
202 Electrochemical Formation of Alloys of Scandium in Molten Salts 1459
Abstract 1459
Introduction 1459
Experimental 1459
Chemicals and Materials 1459
Experimental Setup and Procedure 1460
Results and Discussion 1460
Conclusions 1461
Acknowledgements 1461
References 1461
203 Direct Method for Producing Scandium Metal and Scandium-Aluminium Intermetallic Compounds from the Oxides 1463
Abstract 1463
Introduction 1463
Experimental 1464
Results and Discussion 1465
Summary and Concluding Remarks 1467
Acknowledgements 1468
References 1468
204 Sc Applications in Aluminum Alloys: Overview of Russian Research in the 20th Century 1469
Abstract 1469
Introduction 1469
Phase Diagram Development 1469
Precipitation in Sc-Containing Aluminum Alloys 1471
Recrystallization Control 1473
Grain Refinement upon Solidification 1474
Commercial Alloys with Sc 1474
Concluding Remark 1476
Acknowledgements 1476
References 1476
205 Effect of Treatment Parameters on Structure, Mechanical and Corrosion Properties of Al-Mg-Sc Alloy Forgings with Reduced Concentration of Scandium 1477
Abstract 1477
Introduction 1477
Materials and Methods 1478
Results and Discussion 1478
Conclusions 1483
References 1483
206 Mechanical Properties and Applications of Aluminum Scandium Alloys at Elevated Temperatures 1485
Abstract 1485
Introduction 1485
Materials and Processing 1486
Chemistry 1486
Processing 1486
Atomization 1486
Vacuum Hot Pressed Billets 1487
Extrusion 1487
Open Die Forging 1488
Mechanical Properties at Room and Elevated Temperatures 1488
Elastic Modulus 1489
Forging of Pistons 1489
Summary 1489
References 1490
207 Scandium-Enriched Nanoprecipitates in Aluminum Providing Enhanced Coarsening and Creep Resistance 1492
Abstract 1492
Acknowledgements 1495
References 1495
208 The Effect of Scandium and Zirconium on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Formability of a Model Al–Cu Alloy 1498
Abstract 1498
Introduction 1498
Processing 1499
Results and Discussion 1500
Conclusions 1502
Acknowledgements 1502
References 1502
209 Influence of the Al3(Sc,Zr) Dispersoids and the Stretching on the Natural Ageing Behavior of a Binary Al-4 wt%Cu Alloys 1503
Abstract 1503
Introduction 1503
Methodology 1504
Materials and Fabrication Process 1504
Characterization Techniques 1504
Results 1505
Evolution of Mechanical Properties 1505
Microstructure 1506
Transmission Electron Microscopy 1506
Differential Scanning Calorimetry 1506
Discussion 1507
Conclusions 1509
References 1509
210 Design and Processing Conditions of Hypoeutectic Al–Cu–Sc Alloys for Maximum Benefit of Scandium 1510
Abstract 1510
Introduction 1510
Formation of the W-Phase 1511
Slow Solidification Processing 1511
Samples Production 1511
Analysis Techniques 1512
Results 1512
Rapid Solidification Processing 1513
Samples Production 1513
Analysis and Results 1514
Conclusions 1516
Acknowledgements 1516
References 1516
211 Erratum to: Light Metals 2018 1518
Erratum to:& #6
Author Index 1519
Subject Index 1526

Erscheint lt. Verlag	31.1.2018
Reihe/Serie	The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series
Reihe/Serie	The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series
Zusatzinfo	XXXII, 1637 p. 1563 illus.
Verlagsort	Cham
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Technik ► Maschinenbau
Schlagworte	Alumina and bauxite • aluminum alloys • aluminum reduction • cast shop • electrode technology • Light Metals • MaterialsScience
ISBN-10	3-319-72284-0 / 3319722840
ISBN-13	978-3-319-72284-9 / 9783319722849

Informationen gemäß Produktsicherheitsverordnung (GPSR)
Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt?

PDF (Wasserzeichen)

DRM: Digitales Wasserzeichen
Dieses eBook enthält ein digitales Wasserzeichen und ist damit für Sie personalisiert. Bei einer missbräuchlichen Weitergabe des eBooks an Dritte ist eine Rückverfolgung an die Quelle möglich.

Dateiformat: PDF (Portable Document Format)
Mit einem festen Seitenlayout eignet sich die PDF besonders für Fachbücher mit Spalten, Tabellen und Abbildungen. Eine PDF kann auf fast allen Geräten angezeigt werden, ist aber für kleine Displays (Smartphone, eReader) nur eingeschränkt geeignet.

Systemvoraussetzungen:
PC/Mac: Mit einem PC oder Mac können Sie dieses eBook lesen. Sie benötigen dafür einen PDF-Viewer - z.B. den Adobe Reader oder Adobe Digital Editions.
eReader: Dieses eBook kann mit (fast) allen eBook-Readern gelesen werden. Mit dem amazon-Kindle ist es aber nicht kompatibel.
Smartphone/Tablet: Egal ob Apple oder Android, dieses eBook können Sie lesen. Sie benötigen dafür einen PDF-Viewer - z.B. die kostenlose Adobe Digital Editions-App.

Buying eBooks from abroad
For tax law reasons we can sell eBooks just within Germany and Switzerland. Regrettably we cannot fulfill eBook-orders from other countries.

Print-Ausgabe

Buch | Hardcover

CHF 589,95