Green Aviation is the first authoritative overview of both engineering and operational measures to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation.
It addresses the current status of measures to reduce the environmental impact of air travel. The chapters cover such items as:
- Engineering and technology-related subjects (aerodynamics, engines, fuels, structures, etc.),
- Operations (air traffic management and infrastructure)
- Policy and regulatory aspects regarding atmospheric and noise pollution.
With contributions from leading experts, this volume is intended to be a valuable addition, and useful resource, for aerospace manufacturers and suppliers, governmental and industrial aerospace research establishments, airline and aviation industries, university engineering and science departments, and industry analysts, consultants, and researchers.
Editors-in-Chief (Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering), Richard H. Blockley, Aerospace Consultant, Cranfield University, UK and formerly Head of Technical Programmes, BAE Systems, Farnborough, UK.
Wei Shyy, Provost and Chair Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, China.
Subject Editors: Ramesh Agarwal, The William Palm Professor of Engineering, Washington University, St Louis, Missouri, USA. Author/co-author of over 300 publications, editorial team member of 13 journals, frequent speaker on sustainable air transport.
Fayette Collier, NASA, USA; Director of NASA's Environmentally Responsible Aviation Project.
Andreas Schäfer, Chair in Energy and Transport, UCL Energy Institute, London, UK. Research interests include energy and transportation systems analysis. Previously at International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the University of Cambridge, and Stanford University.
Allan Seabridge, Seabridge Systems Ltd, Lytham St Annes, UK. Section Editor on Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering; Series Editor Wiley Aerospace Series.
Green Aviation is the first authoritative overview of both engineering and operational measures to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation. It addresses the current status of measures to reduce the environmental impact of air travel. The chapters cover such items as: Engineering and technology-related subjects (aerodynamics, engines, fuels, structures, etc.), Operations (air traffic management and infrastructure) Policy and regulatory aspects regarding atmospheric and noise pollution. With contributions from leading experts, this volume is intended to be a valuable addition, and useful resource, for aerospace manufacturers and suppliers, governmental and industrial aerospace research establishments, airline and aviation industries, university engineering and science departments, and industry analysts, consultants, and researchers.
Editors-in-Chief (Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering), Richard H. Blockley, Aerospace Consultant, Cranfield University, UK and formerly Head of Technical Programmes, BAE Systems, Farnborough, UK. Wei Shyy, Provost and Chair Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, China. Subject Editors: Ramesh Agarwal, The William Palm Professor of Engineering, Washington University, St Louis, Missouri, USA. Author/co-author of over 300 publications, editorial team member of 13 journals, frequent speaker on sustainable air transport. Fayette Collier, NASA, USA; Director of NASA's Environmentally Responsible Aviation Project. Andreas Schäfer, Chair in Energy and Transport, UCL Energy Institute, London, UK. Research interests include energy and transportation systems analysis. Previously at International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the University of Cambridge, and Stanford University. Allan Seabridge, Seabridge Systems Ltd, Lytham St Annes, UK. Section Editor on Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering; Series Editor Wiley Aerospace Series.
Green Aviation 1
Contents 7
Contributors 9
Foreword 13
Preface 15
Part 1 Overview 17
Chapter1: Aviation and Climate Change – The Continuing Challenge 19
1 Introduction to Aviation & Climate Change Policy
2 Trends in the Aviation Sector's CO2 Emission 20
2.1 Trends in domestic aviation CO2 emissions 20
2.2 Trends in international aviation CO2emissions 21
2.3 Future aviation CO2 emissions 21
3 Drivers of Demand for Air Travel 22
3.1 Growing demand around the world 22
3.2 The role of socio economic factors inshaping demand 22
3.3 Future demand for air travel 23
4 Technical Options for Cutting CO2 in Aviation 23
4.1 Improving aircraft efficiency 23
4.2 Beyond efficiency 23
5 Future of Aviation and Climate Change 24
5.1 Global climate policies and scenarios 24
5.2 New scenarios and forecasts of CO2 from aviation 25
5.3 Contrasting the outlook for aviation withavoiding 2 °C 26
6 Conclusion 26
References 27
Further Reading 28
Chapter 2: Global Atmospheric Chemistry and Impacts from Aviation 31
1 Introduction 31
2 Emissions 32
3 Chemical Processes in the Troposphere 32
3.1 Oxidation of Organic Compounds 32
3.2 The Importance of Nitrogen Oxides 33
3.3 Sulfur Compounds and Aerosol Effects 34
4 Chemical Processes in the Stratosphere 35
4.1 Ozone Formation 35
4.2 Catalytic Cycles 36
5 Impacts of Aircraft Emissions 36
5.1 Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide 36
5.2 Effects of Nitrogen Oxides 37
5.3 Effects of Sulfur Oxides 38
6 Conclusions 38
Related Articles 39
References 39
Chapter 3: Aviation Emissions 41
1 Introduction 41
2 Traffic and Emissions Trends 42
3 Emissions and Effects 43
3.1 Carbon Dioxide 43
3.2 Oxides of Nitrogen 44
3.3 Water Vapor 45
3.4 Particles - Sulfate, Black Carbon, and Organics 45
4 Emission Inventories 46
5 Future Trends 47
6 Mitigation: Technology and Policy 47
6.1 Technology 47
6.2 Policy Options 48
7 Conclusion 48
Related Articles 49
Note 49
References 49
Chapter 4: Emissions and Other Impacts: Introduction 51
1 Introduction 51
2 Conclusion 53
References 53
Chapter 5: Avoiding the Predictable Surprise: Early Action Is the Key to Building a Climate-Resilient Aviation Network 55
1 Introduction 55
2 Background 56
3 Potential Climate Change Impacts for European Aviation 56
4 European Aviation Stakeholder Consultation 60
5 Building Climate Resilience 61
6 Early Action to Build Resilience 62
7 Building Resilience A Global Challenge 63
8 Conclusions 64
Acknowledgments 64
References 64
Part 2 Aerodynamics and Airframe 67
Chapter 6: Application of Drag Reduction Techniques to Transport Aircraft 69
1 Introduction 69
2 Laminar Flow Control 70
2.1 Boundary-Layer Transition Mechanisms 70
Tollmien-Schlichting (T-S) Waves 70
Attachment-Line Contamination and Stability 71
Centrifugal Instability 71
Cross-flow Instability 71
2.2 Computational Tools for Laminar Flow Design 72
2.3 Surface Imperfections and Insect Contamination 73
2.4 Laminar Flow Research and Applications 73
3 Active Flow Control 75
3.1 Sweeping Jet Actuators 75
3.2 Full-Scale AFC Wind Tunnel Test 76
4Conclusion 77
References 77
Chapter 7: Blended Wing Body Aircraft: A Historical Perspective 79
1 The Classical Airplane Concept 79
2 Flying Wing and Tailless Aircraft 79
3 Aerodynamic and Fuel Efficiency 80
4 Very Large Aircraft (VLA ) 81
5 Hybrid Flying Wing 81
6 Genesis of Blended Wing Body Aircraft 82
7 Development of the First-Generation BWB 83
8 Second -Generation BWB 83
9 Challenges and Advantages 84
10 Boeing BWB-450 85
11 Barriers or Show Stoppers? 86
12 Conclusion 87
Acknowledgments 87
References 87
Chapter 8: Fuel Burn Reduction Through Wing Morphing 89
1 Introduction 89
2 Impact of Morphing on Fuel Burn 89
3 Planform Morphing 90
4 Out-of-Plane Morphing 91
5 Airfoil Morphing 92
6 Conclusions and Outlook 94
References 95
Part 3 Combustion-Based Propulsion 97
Chapter 9: Advances in Turbofan Engines: A US Perspective 99
1 Historical Perspective 99
2 US Contemporary Efforts in Turbofan Research 102
2.1 Propulsor technology (ITD35A) 102
2.2 Combustor technology (ITD40A) 104
2.3 Compressor technology (ITD30A) 106
3 Generation-After-Next Turbofan Research 108
4 Outlook 109
Acknowledgments 110
Nomenclature 110
References 110
Chapter 10: A Rolls-Royce Perspective on Concepts and Technologies for Future Green Propulsion Systems 111
1 Fundamentals of Improving Engine Fuel Efficiency: Thermal and Propulsive Efficiencies 111
2 Market Drivers and Environmental Requirements 112
3 Trent Family State of the Art 113
4 Next-Generation Engines: Advance and Ultrafan& trade
5 Longer-Term Gas-Turbine "Vision 20" Technology 116
6 Conclusion 118
References 119
Chapter 11: Geared Turbofan Engine: Driven by Innovation 121
1 Introduction 121
2 Fan Drive Gear System (FDGS): Historical Development 122
3 Design Features and Innovation 123
3.1 Fundamental Gear Design and Reduction Ratio Selection 123
3.2 Achieving Efficiency 123
3.3 Achieving Reliability by Flexibly Mounting Gears and Bearings 124
3.4 Development of a Unique Lubrication Scheme for the FDGS 125
4 FDGS Validation and Certification 125
5 Conclusion 126
References 127
Chapter 12: Advanced Engine Designs and Concepts Beyond the Geared Turbofan 129
1 Introduction 129
1.1 Propulsive Efficiency 129
1.2 Thermal Efficiency 131
1.3 Propulsion System Thrust to Weight Ratio 133
1.4 Other Factors 133
1.5 Design Optimization versus Time 133
1.6 The State of the Art 134
2 Near-Term Improvements 135
3 Long-Term Options 135
3.1 The Open Rotor 135
3.2 Boundary Layer Ingestion (BLI) 136
3.3 Distributed Propulsion 137
3.4 Electric Propulsion 137
3.5 Alternative Fuels 138
3.6 Higher Thermal Efficiency Cores 138
3.7 Smart Engines 140
4 Conclusions 140
Nomenclature 140
References 140
Chapter 13: Progress in Open Rotor Research 143
1 Historical Perspective 143
1.1 Single Rotation Concepts 143
1.2 Advanced Concepts 145
1.3 Summary for Single Rotation Concepts 146
1.4 Contra-Rotation Concepts 146
1.5 The Community Noise Challenge for Contra-Rotating Concepts 147
1.6 Ground Engine and Flight Tests 151
2 Contemporary Efforts in Open Rotor Research 151
2.1 Installed Open Rotor Testing 153
2.2 Source Noise Modeling Efforts in the United States 153
3 Systems Analysis of Open Rotor-Powered Aircraft 156
4 Outlook 157
Acknowledgments 158
Nomenclature 158
References 159
Part 4 Alternative Propulsion 161
Chapter 14: Energy Optimization for Solar-Powered Aircraft 163
1 Introduction 163
2 Brief History 164
3 Incident Solar Radiation Modeling 166
3.1 Solar Tracking 166
3.2 Airplane Path Equations 166
3.3 Analysis of the airfoil/wing covered with PV Panels 168
3.4 Energy Estimation 169
3.5 Summary of methodology for determining the incidence solar energy 170
4 Airfoil Shape Optimization for Maximization of Incidence Solar Energy 170
4.1 Genetic algorithm 171
5 Energy-Optimized Airfoils 172
6 Energy Optimization with Drag Minimization 175
7 Types of Solar Panels and Their Relative Merits 176
8 Power Supply and Control 176
9 Conclusions 177
9.1 Challenges 177
9.2 Future Prospects 177
Acknowledgments 178
Nomenclature 178
References 178
Chapter 15: Hydrogen-Powered Aircraft 181
1 Introduction 181
2 History of Hydrogen-Powered Aviation 181
2.1 Balloons and Airships 181
2.2 Turbine Engines 182
2.3 Hydrogen-Powered Airplanes 182
2.4 Hydrogen in the Twenty-First Century Aviation 184
3 Hydrogen Transport Aircraft Design 185
3.1 Tank Placement 185
3.2 Tank Design 186
4 Hydrogen Propulsion Systems 187
5 Hydrogen Combustion 187
5.1 Comparison of Fuel Properties 187
5.2 Combustion Process 188
5.3 Hydrogen Emissions 188
6 Hydrogen Production 189
7 Hydrogen Distribution Infrastructure 189
7.1 Hydrogen Transportation 189
7.2 Hydrogen Storage 189
8 Liquid Hydrogen or Liquefied Natural Gas 191
9 Summary: Hydrogen as a Fuel For Aviation 191
References 192
Chapter 16: Biofuels for Green Aviation 195
1 Overview 195
2 Introduction 195
3 Biofuel as Green Aviation Fuel: Background 196
4 Potential Biofuels for Green Aviation 197
4.1 Ethanol 197
4.2 Cellulosic Ethanol 198
4.3 Butanol 199
4.4 Biodiesel 200
4.5 Biodiesel from Palm Oil 201
4.6 Biodiesel from Algae 201
4.7 Biodiesel from Halophytes 202
4.8 Synthetic Fuel 202
5 The Processing of Biomass 203
5.1 Gasification 203
5.2 Hydrolysis 204
5.3 Anaerobic Digestion 204
6 Biofuel Applications for the Green Aviation Industry 205
7 Extreme Green Aviation: The Future 206
8 Summary and Conclusion 206
References 206
Chapter 17: Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Auxiliary Power Units 209
1 Introduction 209
2 Brief History 210
3 SOFC/GAS Turbine System Design 210
4 PEMFC System Alternative 213
5 Challenges 213
6 Future Prospects 214
7 Conclusion 215
Further Reading 215
References 215
Chapter 18: Electric Drives for Propulsion System of Transport Aircraft 217
1 Introduction 217
2 Hybrid Electric and Universally Electric Propulsion System Architecture 218
2.1 Topological Options for Electric Drive Application 219
2.2 Enabling Technologies for Electric Drive Application to Transport Aircraft 221
3 Compendium of Hybrid Electric and Universally Electric Aircraft 223
4 Insights Regarding Integrated Hybrid Electric Transport Aircraft 224
4.1 Algebraic Descriptors and Figure of Merits 224
4.2 Aircraft Retrofit with Hybrid Electric Propulsion System 225
4.3 Hybrid Electric Clean-Sheet Design 226
4.4 Distributed Hybrid Electric Clean-Sheet Design 228
5 Conclusion 232
References 233
Chapter 19: Lithium-Ion Batteries: Thermomechanics, Performance, and Design Optimization 237
1 Introduction 237
2 Fundamentals of Lithium-Ion Batteries 237
3 Cell Operation 239
4 Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries 240
4.1 Strategies and Approaches for Battery Modeling 241
4.2 Recent Progress in Modeling Development 243
5 Battery Design 244
6 Issues and Challenges 246
6.1 Cell Degradation 246
6.2 Fast Charging 248
6.3 Safety 248
7 The Future 249
8 Conclusion 250
References 250
Part 5 Aerodynamics and Aircraft Concepts 255
Chapter 20: Damage Arresting Composites 257
1 Introduction 257
2 Structural Concept 258
3 Damage Arrest Design 260
4 Structural Feasibility Testing 262
4.1 Compressive Loading 262
4.2 Tensile Loading 264
4.3 Internal Pressure Loading 264
4.4 Integral Panel Design Considerations 265
4.5 Combined Loading and Large-Scale Built-Up 265
5 Concluding Remarks 267
References 267
Chapter 21: Greener Helicopters 269
1 Introduction 269
2 Propulsion Systems 270
2. 1 VTOL Vehicle Designs with Green Propulsion Systems 270
2.2 Types of Green Propulsion Systems 271
2.3 Ongoing Propulsion Research within NASA 273
3 Acoustics 273
3.1 Types of Rotorcraft Noise 273
3.2 Reducing Rotorcraft Noise 275
4 Conceptual Design 276
4.1 Rotorcraft Design Software 276
4.2 Applying ``Green Metrics´´ to Rotorcraft Design 277
4.3 Green VTOL Transportation System: Hopper 278
5 Summary 279
References 279
Part 6 Noise 281
Chapter 22: Aircraft Noise: Alleviating Constraints to Airport Operations and Growth 283
1 Introduction 283
2 Background 284
3 Aircraft Noise and Airport Capacity 284
4 Assessing Noise Impacts on Communities 284
4.1 Indicators of Noise Exposure 285
4.2 Assessing Noise Impacts and Community Attitudes 285
4.3 Communicating Noise Exposure and Community Impacts 287
5 Noise Regulation & Management
5.1 Reducing Noise Exposure 289
5.2 Increasing Community Tolerance 290
6 Conclusion 290
Related Articles 291
References 291
Chapter 23: Aircraft Noise Modeling 293
1 Aircraft Noise Sources 293
1.1 Aircraft Noise as an environmental challenge 293
1.2 Main noise sources 294
1.3 Noise problem classifications 295
2 Noise Prediction Models 296
2.1 Semiempirical and component-based methods 296
2.2 Component-based methods for landing gears 296
2.3 Physics-based method for landing gears 297
2.4 High-lift device models 298
2.5 Rotor and contra-rotating rotor noise 299
3 Summary 301
Acknowledgments 302
References 302
Chapter 24: Carbon and Noise Trading in Aviation 303
1 Introduction 303
2 Policy Options to Combat Environmental Externalities 303
3 Tradable Permits 304
3.1 What are Tradable Permits? 304
3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 304
3.3 Design of a Tradable Permit Policy 304
3.4 Tradable Permits in Practice 305
3.5 GHG Emissions Trading Scheme and EU-ETS 306
4 Aviation and Emissions Trading 306
4.1 Policy Background 306
4.2 Evaluation and Expected Impacts of Emissions Trading for Aviation 308
4.3 The Way Forward? 310
5 Concepts in Noise Trading 310
6 Conclusions 311
References 312
Part 7 Systems 315
Chapter 25: Onboard Energy Management 317
1 Introduction 317
2 Energy Generation 318
3 Energy Consumption 319
4 Architecture Assessments 321
5 Integration Challenges 322
6 Energy Management 322
7 Concluding Remarks 325
References 326
Chapter 26: Impact of Airframe Systems on Green Airliner Operation 327
1 Introduction 327
2 Airframe Systems Impact Within the Context of Aircraft Operation 327
2.1 The Mission 327
2.2 Airframe Systems Architecture 328
2.3 Case Study 330
3 Effect of Airframe Systems on Green Trajectories 331
3.1 Aircraft, Engine, and Systems Setup 331
3.2 Framework and Optimizer Setup 331
3.3 Mission Route 331
3.4 Terminology Used to Discuss Results 331
3.5 Results 332
3.6 Short-Haul Results Analysis 333
3.7 Long-Haul Results Analysis 335
3.8 Comparison of Short-Haul and Long-Haul Trajectory Optimization 335
4 Summary and Conclusions 336
Appendix A: Route Data 337
Nomenclature 338
Abbreviations 338
Units 338
Symbols 338
References 338
Chapter 27: Modern Avionics and ATM Systems for Green Operations 339
1 Introduction 339
2 ATM Evolutionary Roadmap 340
3 Trajectory Optimization 340
3.1 Emission Models 341
3.2 Contrails Model 344
3.3 Noise Model 344
3.4 Operational Costs Model 344
3.5 Weather Model 344
3.6 Airspace Capacity 345
4 CNS+A Systems for Trajectory based Operations 345
5 Air Traffic Flow Management 346
6 Dynamic Airspace Management 346
7 Next-Generation Flight Management Systems 347
7.1 Ng-FMS functions 347
8 Integrated Vehicle Health Management System 349
9 Data Link Evolutions 350
10 System-Wide Information Management 351
11 CNS+A Technologies for RPAS 351
12 Conclusions 352
References 353
Part 8 Operations 357
Chapter 28: Integrated Assessment Modeling 359
1 Introduction 359
2 Aviation System Components and Model Elements 360
2.1 Passengers 360
2.2 Freight 361
2.3 Airlines 361
2.4 Airports 363
2.5 Aircraft and Engine Manufacturers 363
2.6 Air Navigation Service Providers 364
2.7 Governments, Regulatory Organizations, and Others 364
2.8 Local Airport Areas 364
2.9 Global Impacts 364
2.10 Feedback and Solution Methodology 365
3 Scenarios and System Levers 365
3.1 Future Projections and Uncertainty 365
3.2 Application of Policies and Mitigation Measures 367
4 Conclusions and Future Model Development 367
References 367
Chapter 29: Cost Analysis Approach in the Development of Advanced Technologies for Green Aviation Aircraft 371
1 Green Aviation Context: The Era Project 371
2 Conceptual Design Process for Green Aviation Aircraft 372
3 Overview of the Cost Analysis Approach 373
4 PTIRS Cost Estimating Relationships 375
5 Business Case for Incorporating a Technology 376
6 Sample Business Cases 377
6.1 Primary Case - A New, 777-200LR-like, Tube and Wing Aircraft Employing an HLFC Wing and a Metal Foam Acoustic Liner in the Inlet 377
6.2 Alternative Case 1 - Retrofit HLFC Wing and a Metal Foam Acoustic Liner on Existing 777-200LRs 377
6.3 Alternative Case 2 - Retrofit Case with Reduced Uncertainty after Technology Flight Demonstration Program 379
6.4 Comparison of Cases 379
7 ERA Technology Investments Summary 379
7.1 Airframe Technology 380
7.2 Propulsion Technology 380
7.3 Propulsion Airframe Integration 381
8 ERA Portfolio Business Case 381
9 Conclusion 382
Acknowledgments 382
References 382
Chapter 30: Green Aircraft Operations 385
1 Introduction 385
2 Environmental Inefficiency Factors in Current Operations 386
2.1 Flight Planning 386
2.2 Departure Surface and Terminal Area 387
2.3 En Route 388
2.4 Arrival Terminal Area and Surface 388
3 Green Aircraft Operations 389
3.1 Flight Planning 389
3.2 Surface Operations 390
3.3 Departure Operations 392
3.4 Cruise Operations 392
3.5 Arrival Operations 392
4 Summary 395
Acknowledgments 395
References 395
Chapter 31: Impact of Airports on Local Air Quality 397
1 Introduction 397
2 Monitoring 399
3 Modeling 401
4 NO2 402
5 Fine Particulate Matter 403
6 Conclusions 404
References 404
Chapter 32: A Roadmap for Aviation Research in Australia 407
1 Introduction 407
2 Improved Efficiency and Capacity of Airports 408
3 Systems and Technologies for Air Traffic Management 409
4 Through-Life Support of new and Aging Aircraft 411
5 Low-Emission Technologies and Biofuels 412
6 Enhanced Aviation Safety and Security 413
7 Conclusions 414
References 414
Part 9 Atmosphere and Climate 417
Chapter 33: Atmospheric Modeling 419
1 Introduction 419
2 Consideration for Model Construction 420
2.1 A Typical Set of Equations 421
2.2 Discretization and Implementation of Equations 422
3 How to Run a Model 424
3.1 Initial Value Problems (Weather Forecasting) 425
3.2 Boundary Value Problems (Climate Prediction) 425
4 A Natural Extension To Atmospheric Modeling 425
4.1 Transport 425
4.2 Chemistry and Aerosol Modeling 426
5 Conclusion 426
Notes 426
References 427
Chapter 34: In Plume Physics and Chemistry 429
1 Introduction 429
2 Aircraft Wake Dynamics and Exhaust Plume Mixing 430
2.1 Description and physical properties 430
3 Chemical Processes and Formation of Aerosol Precursors 432
3.1 NOx species 432
3.2 SOX species 433
3.3 Role of precursors 434
4 Microphysics and Aerosol Interactions 434
4.1 New particle formation 434
4.2 Aerosols' evolution 436
5 Summary 439
Notation 439
Related Article 439
References 439
Further Reading 440
Chapter 35: Contrails and Contrail Cirrus 441
1 Introduction 441
2 Exhaust Contrail Formation 441
2.1 Thermodynamics 441
2.2 Phases of Contrail Evolution 442
2.3 Persistence or Non-Persistence: Ice Supersaturation 443
2.4 Ice Formation on Exhaust Particles 443
3 Aerodynamic Contrails 444
4 Climate Impact of Contrails 445
4.1 Contrail-to-Cirrus Transformation 445
4.2 Contrail's Share to the Greenhouse Effect 445
4.3 Trends of Cirrus Cloud Cover 447
4.4 Potential Further Climate Effects of Aviation's Particulate Emission 448
5 Mitigation Options 448
5.1 Technical Options 448
5.2 Changing Contrail Properties 449
5.3 Operational Options 449
6 Summary 450
References 451
Further Reading 451
Chapter 36: Radiative Forcing and Climate Change 453
1 Introduction 453
2 Conceptual Framework 453
2.1 Radiative Forcing 453
2.2 Temperature Response and Climate Sensitivity 454
2.3 Climate Feedbacks 454
2.4 Limitations in the Use of Radiative Forcing 455
3 Radiative Forcing Due to Aviation 455
3.1 Carbon Dioxide 456
3.2 Oxides of Nitrogen 457
3.3 Water Vapor 457
3.4 Aerosol 458
3.5 Contrails 458
3.6 Aviation-Induced Cloud Changes 458
3.7 Summary and Comparison with the Total Impact of Human Activity 459
4 Emission Indices 459
4.1 General Considerations 459
4.2 The Global Warming Potential and the Global Temperature Change Potential 460
5 Conclusions 461
Related Article 461
References 461
Chapter 37: Atmospheric Composition 463
1 Guide to this Chapter 463
2 Fundamental Properties of Atmospheric Gases 464
3 The Homosphere, Heterosphere, and Exosphere 466
4 The Principal Atmospheric Gases 469
4.1 Nitrogen 469
4.2 Oxygen 470
4.3 Water vapor 470
4.4 Carbon dioxide 470
4.5 The noble gases 470
4.6 Methane 471
4.7 Nitrous oxide 471
4.8 Ozone 471
4.9 Hydrogen 471
5 Summary 472
Acknowledgments 473
Related Article 473
References 473
Chapter 38: Meteorology 475
1 Introduction 475
2 Microburst Wind Shear 475
3 Turbulence 478
3.1 Gravity/shear waves 480
3.2 Terrain-induced turbulence 483
3.3 Vicinities of thunderstorms 485
3.4 ``Free´´ atmospheric turbulence 486
4 ICING 486
5 Wake Vortices 488
6 Lightning 488
7 Dust Devils 488
8 Concluding Remarks 489
References 490
Further Reading 491
Subject Index 493
End User License Agreement 531
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 20.9.2016 |
|---|---|
| Mitarbeit |
Herausgeber (Serie): Richard Blockley |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Technik ► Fahrzeugbau / Schiffbau |
| Technik ► Luft- / Raumfahrttechnik | |
| Technik ► Maschinenbau | |
| Schlagworte | aerodynamics • Aeronautic & Aerospace Engineering • Aerospace Engineering • Air Traffic Management • air travel • Engineering • Engines • Environmental impact • fuels • Green Aviation • Luft- u. Raumfahrttechnik • Maschinenbau • mechanical engineering • Noise Pollution • operations • Policy • Regulatory • Structures • Technology |
| ISBN-10 | 1-118-86650-9 / 1118866509 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-1-118-86650-4 / 9781118866504 |
| Informationen gemäß Produktsicherheitsverordnung (GPSR) | |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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