Applied Welding Engineering - Ramesh Singh

Applied Welding Engineering (eBook)

Processes, Codes, and Standards

Ramesh Singh (Autor)

eBook Download: EPUB

2011 | 1. Auflage
376 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-12-391917-5 (ISBN)

While there are several books on market that are designed to serve a company's daily shop-floor needs. Their focus is mainly on the physically making specific types of welds on specific types of materials with specific welding processes. There is nearly zero focus on the design, maintenance and troubleshooting of the welding systems and equipment. Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes and Standards is designed to provide a practical in-depth instruction for the selection of the materials incorporated in the joint, joint inspection, and the quality control for the final product. Welding Engineers will also find this book a valuable source for developing new welding processes or procedures for new materials as well as a guide for working closely with design engineers to develop efficient welding designs and fabrication procedures. Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes and Standards is based on a practical approach. The book's four part treatment starts with a clear and rigorous exposition of the science of metallurgy including but not limited to: Alloys, Physical Metallurgy, Structure of Materials, Non-Ferrous Materials, Mechanical Properties and Testing of Metals and Heal Treatment of Steels. This is followed by self-contained sections concerning applications regarding Section 2: Welding Metallurgy & Welding Processes, Section 3: Nondestructive Testing, and Section 4: Codes and Standards. The author's objective is to keep engineers moored in the theory taught in the university and colleges while exploring the real world of practical welding engineering. Other topics include: Mechanical Properties and Testing of Metals, Heat Treatment of Steels, Effect of Heat on Material During Welding, Stresses, Shrinkage and Distortion in Welding, Welding, Corrosion Resistant Alloys-Stainless Steel, Welding Defects and Inspection, Codes, Specifications and Standards. The book is designed to support welding and joining operations where engineers pass plans and projects to mid-management personnel who must carry out the planning, organization and delivery of manufacturing projects. In this book, the author places emphasis on developing the skills needed to lead projects and interface with engineering and development teams. In writing this book, the book leaned heavily on the author's own experience as well as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (www.asme.org), American Welding Society (www.aws.org), American Society of Metals (www.asminternational.org), NACE International (www.nace.org), American Petroleum Institute (www.api.org), etc. Other sources includes The Welding Institute, UK (www.twi.co.uk), and Indian Air force training manuals, ASNT (www.asnt.org), the Canadian Standard Association (www.cas.com) and Canadian General Standard Board (CGSB) (www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca). - Rules for developing efficient welding designs and fabrication procedures - Expert advice for complying with international codes and standards from the American Welding Society, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and The Welding Institute(UK) - Practical in-depth instruction for the selection of the materials incorporated in the joint, joint inspection, and the quality control for the final product.

Ramesh Singh, MS, IEng, MWeldI, is registered as Incorporated Engineer with British Engineering Council UK and a Member of The Welding Institute, UK. He worked as engineer for various operating and EPC organizations in Middle East, Canada and US. Most recently, he worked for 10 years with Gulf Interstate Engineering, Houston, TX. He is now consulting in the fields of pipeline integrity and related materials and corrosion topics. Ramesh is a graduate from Indian Air Force Technical Academy, with diplomas in Structural Fabrication Engineering and Welding Technology. He has been member and officer of the Canadian Standard Association and NACE and serves on several technical committees. He has worked in industries spanning over aeronautical, alloy steel castings, fabrication, machining, welding engineering, petrochemical, and oil and gas. He has written several technical papers and published articles in leading industry magazines, addressing the practical aspects of welding, construction and corrosion issues relating to structures, equipment and pipelines.

While there are several books on market that are designed to serve a company's daily shop-floor needs. Their focus is mainly on the physically making specific types of welds on specific types of materials with specific welding processes. There is nearly zero focus on the design, maintenance and troubleshooting of the welding systems and equipment. Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes and Standards is designed to provide a practical in-depth instruction for the selection of the materials incorporated in the joint, joint inspection, and the quality control for the final product. Welding Engineers will also find this book a valuable source for developing new welding processes or procedures for new materials as well as a guide for working closely with design engineers to develop efficient welding designs and fabrication procedures. Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes and Standards is based on a practical approach. The book's four part treatment starts with a clear and rigorous exposition of the science of metallurgy including but not limited to: Alloys, Physical Metallurgy, Structure of Materials, Non-Ferrous Materials, Mechanical Properties and Testing of Metals and Heal Treatment of Steels. This is followed by self-contained sections concerning applications regarding Section 2: Welding Metallurgy & Welding Processes, Section 3: Nondestructive Testing, and Section 4: Codes and Standards. The author's objective is to keep engineers moored in the theory taught in the university and colleges while exploring the real world of practical welding engineering. Other topics include: Mechanical Properties and Testing of Metals, Heat Treatment of Steels, Effect of Heat on Material During Welding, Stresses, Shrinkage and Distortion in Welding, Welding, Corrosion Resistant Alloys-Stainless Steel, Welding Defects and Inspection, Codes, Specifications and Standards. The book is designed to support welding and joining operations where engineers pass plans and projects to mid-management personnel who must carry out the planning, organization and delivery of manufacturing projects. In this book, the author places emphasis on developing the skills needed to lead projects and interface with engineering and development teams. In writing this book, the book leaned heavily on the author's own experience as well as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (www.asme.org), American Welding Society (www.aws.org), American Society of Metals (www.asminternational.org), NACE International (www.nace.org), American Petroleum Institute (www.api.org), etc. Other sources includes The Welding Institute, UK (www.twi.co.uk), and Indian Air force training manuals, ASNT (www.asnt.org), the Canadian Standard Association (www.cas.com) and Canadian General Standard Board (CGSB) (www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca). - Rules for developing efficient welding designs and fabrication procedures- Expert advice for complying with international codes and standards from the American Welding Society, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and The Welding Institute(UK)- Practical in-depth instruction for the selection of the materials incorporated in the joint, joint inspection, and the quality control for the final product.

Front Cover 1
Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes and Standards 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
Preface 22
Acknowledgment 24
1. Introduction to Basic Metallurgy 26
1. Introduction 28
Pure Metals and Alloys 29
Smelting 29
Iron 29
Sponge Iron 29
2. Alloys 32
Alloys 32
Effects of Alloying Elements 33
Carbon Steels 33
Sulfur 33
Manganese 33
Phosphorus 34
Silicon 34
Alloy Steels 34
The Effect of Alloying Elements on Ferrite 34
Effects of Alloying Elements on Carbide 35
3. Physical Metallurgy 38
Crystal Lattices 38
Crystal Structure Nomenclature 39
Solidification 39
Lever Rule of Solidification 39
Constitutional Supercooling 41
Elementary Theory of Nucleation 42
Allotropy 43
Crystal Imperfections 46
Grain Size 46
4. Structure of Materials 48
Phase Diagrams 49
Different Types of Phase Diagrams 49
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram 53
Explanation of the Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram 53
Rationale for Letter Designations in the Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram 57
5. Production of Steel 58
The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Process 58
Furnace Charging 59
Melting 60
Refining 61
Phosphorus Removal 61
Sulfur Removal 62
Nitrogen and Hydrogen Control 62
De-Slagging 63
Tapping 63
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) 64
Refining Reactions 65
Carbon 65
Silicon 65
Manganese 66
Phosphorus 67
Sulfur Removal 68
Deoxidation of Steel 69
Rimmed Steel 70
Capped Steel 71
Semi-Killed Steel 71
Killed Steel 71
Deoxidation Equilibria 72
The Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram 75
6. Classification of Steels 76
Carbon Steels 78
Low-Carbon 78
Medium-Carbon 78
High-Carbon 79
Ultrahigh-Carbon 79
High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels 79
Classification of HSLA 79
Low-Alloy Steels 80
Low-Carbon Quenched and Tempered Steels 80
Medium-Carbon Ultrahigh-Strength Steels 80
Bearing Steels 80
Chromium-Molybdenum Heat-Resistant Steels 80
AISI Series 81
Some Examples AISI Classifications 81
7. Cast Iron 82
Types of Cast Iron 82
White Cast Iron 84
Malleable Cast Iron 84
Ferritic Malleable Iron 85
White Heart Cast Iron 85
Black Heart Cast Iron 85
Pearlite Malleable Cast Iron 85
Martensitic Malleable Iron 85
Gray Cast Iron 86
Castability of Gray Cast Iron 87
Chilled Cast Iron 88
Nodular (Spheroidal Graphite) Cast Iron 88
Castability, Solidification and Shrinkage 88
Alloy Cast Irons 89
8. Stainless Steels 90
Stainless Steel Production 90
Forming 91
Heat Treatment 91
Cutting Stainless Steel 93
Finishing 93
Fabrication of Stainless Steel 94
Welding and Joining 94
Types of Stainless Steels 94
Classification of Stainless Steel 95
Martensitic Stainless Steels 95
Ferritic Stainless Steels 95
Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE) 96
Austenitic Stainless Steels 96
Duplex Stainless Steels 97
Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels 98
9. Non-Ferrous Materials 100
Copper and Copper Alloys 100
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 101
Physical Metallurgy of Aluminum 101
Effect of Alloying Elements on Aluminum 102
Effect of Iron 102
Effect of Silicon 102
Effect of Manganese 102
Effect of Magnesium 102
Effect of Copper 103
Effect of Zinc 103
Effect of Chromium 103
Effect of Zirconium 104
Effect of Lithium 104
Age Hardenable Alloys 104
Nickel and Nickel Alloys 106
Titanium and Titanium Alloys 106
10. Working With Metals 108
Elastic Limit 108
Plastic Deformation 109
Fracture 109
Polycrystalline Materials 109
Cold Working 109
Stored Energy 110
Restoring the Lattice Structure of Metal after Cold Work – Annealing 110
Grain Growth 110
Hot Working 111
11. Mechanical Properties and Testing of Metals 112
Strength of Materials 112
Elastic and Plastic Behavior 113
Ductile vs. Brittle Behavior 113
Failure 114
Fracture 114
Fracture Control 115
Crack Growth and Fracture 116
Damage Tolerance 116
Failure Analysis 116
Testing of Metals 118
Tensile Test 118
Hardness Test 118
Impact Test 119
Creep Test 119
Fatigue Test 119
12. Heat Treatment of Steels 120
TTT and CCT Curves 121
Isothermal-Transformation (IT) or (TTT) Diagrams 121
Cooling Curves 123
Cooling-Transformation (C-T) Diagrams 123
Stress Relief Annealing 123
Normalizing 125
Annealing 125
Spheroidizing 126
Tempering 127
Austempering of Steels 127
Martempering 127
Hardening 128
Hardening by Martensite Transformation 128
Case Hardening and Carburizing 128
Process of Quenching 130
Heat Treatment of Non-Ferrous Material 130
Heat Treatment of Copper and Copper Alloys 130
Heat Treating Aluminum and its Alloys 131
Heat-Treating Furnaces 131
Liquid Heating Baths 132
2. Welding Metallurgy and Welding Processes 134
1. Introduction 136
Welding Procedures 137
2. Physics of Welding 140
Heat 141
Details of the Heat-Flow in Welding 142
Heat in Arc Welding Processes 145
Heat in Plasma Arc Cutting and Welding 146
Heat in Resistance Welding 146
Heat in Electroslag Welding (ESW) 147
Heat in Welding Processes using Chemical Sources 149
Thermit Welding 150
Heat Generated by Mechanical Processes 151
Friction Welding 151
Ultrasonic Welding 152
Explosion Welding 153
Heat by Focused Sources 153
Laser Beam Welding (LBW) 154
Electron Beam Welding (EBW) 155
Other Sources of Heat in Welding 156
Application of the Principles of Welding Physics 158
Pre-Heating 158
Determining the Need for Pre-Heat and the Temperature 159
Post-Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) 163
Heat and Time in Welding 165
Heat Input 165
Energy Distribution 165
Rate of Heating 166
Maximum Temperature 166
Heat Generation and Temperature Distribution – Practical Application 166
Time at Temperature 167
Cooling Rates 167
Base Metal Mass 167
3. Welding and Joining Processes 172
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): Process Fundamentals 176
How the Process Works 177
Covered Electrodes Used in the SMAW Process 177
Joint Design and Preparation 179
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): Process Description 180
Process Advantages and Limitations 180
Electrodes 180
Joint Design 181
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) 182
Process Description 182
Electrode Selection 183
Joint Design 183
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) 183
Process Fundamentals 183
Principal Applications of FCAW 184
Shielding Gases 185
Electrodes 185
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 185
Process Description 185
Materials 186
Other Common Joining and Welding Processes 186
Electroslag Welding (ESW) 186
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) 187
Stud Welding 188
Oxy-fuel Gas Welding (OFW) 189
Brazing and Soldering 190
Arc-Welding Power Sources 191
Constant Voltage Power Source 192
Constant-Current Power Source 192
Transformers 193
Thyristor-Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR) 194
Generators 195
Alternators 195
4. Physical Effect of Heat on Material During Welding 196
The Molten Metal 197
The Welded Plate 197
Influence of Cooling Rate 198
5. Stresses, Shrinkage and Distortion in Weldments 200
Stresses in Weldments 201
Definitions of Terms 201
Development of Stresses 201
Moving a Localized Heat Source 201
Distribution of Stress in a Simple Weld 202
Residual Stresses 203
Shrinkages 203
Shrinkage Transverse to a Butt Weld 203
Shrinkage Longitudinal to a Butt Weld 204
Distortion in Weldments 205
General Description 205
Angular Distortion 206
Longitudinal Bowing 206
Buckling 206
Corrective Measures 207
Thermal Straightening 207
Designing Weld Joints 208
Assessing the Strength of Welds 209
Throat of a Weld 209
Sizing a Fillet Weld 210
Stress Causing Fatigue in Weld 210
Weld Size and Cost Control 213
Control of Welding Stresses to Minimize Through-Thickness Failures 215
6. Welding Corrosion Resistant Alloys – Stainless Steel 216
Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs) 217
Stainless Steel 217
Welding Stainless Steel 217
General Welding Characteristics 217
Welding Processes 219
Protection against Oxidation 219
Welding Hygiene 219
Austenitic Stainless Steels 220
Metallurgical Concerns Associated with Welding Austenitic Stainless Steels 220
Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels 221
Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels 221
Superaustenitic Stainless Steels 223
Material Properties and Applications 223
Welding and Joining of Superaustenitic Stainless Steels 223
Difficulties Associated with Welding Stainless Steel 224
Martensitic Stainless Steels 227
Properties and Application 227
Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels 228
Ferritic Stainless Steels 230
Properties and Application 230
Welding Ferritic Steel 231
Precipitation Hardened Stainless Steels 231
Properties and Application of Precipitation Hardened Steels 231
Welding Precipitation Hardened (PH) Steels 232
Duplex Stainless Steels 235
Mechanical Properties 235
Heat Treatment 237
Welding and Fabrication 237
7. Welding Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys 240
Aluminum and its Alloys 241
The Confusing Thing about Aluminum 241
Weld Hygiene 242
Preheating 242
The Conductivity of Heat 242
Welding Filler Metals 243
Welding Aluminum with the Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process 243
Welding Aluminum with the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process 245
Type of Current and Electrode 245
Grinding the Tip of the Electrodes 246
Welding Aluminum with the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Process 246
Power Source 246
Wire Feeder 246
Welding Guns 247
Welding Technique 247
The Push Technique 247
Travel Speed 247
Shielding Gas 248
Welding Wire 248
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) 248
Nickel Alloys 249
Heat Treatment 249
Mechanical Properties 249
Fabrication 250
Precipitation Hardenable Nickel-Based Alloys 250
Heat Treatment of PH Nickel Alloys 250
Mechanical Properties 250
Welding 251
Titanium Alloys 251
Heat Treatment 252
Alpha (& #945
Alpha/beta (& #945
Beta (& #946
8. Weld Defects and Inspection 254
Weld Quality 254
Acceptance Standards 254
Discontinuities in Fusion Welded Joints 255
Classification of Weld Joint Discontinuities 256
Typical Weld Defects 257
Porosity 258
Inclusions 259
Incomplete Fusion 259
Inadequate Joint Penetration 259
Undercut 259
Underfill 260
Overlap 260
Cracks 260
Surface Irregularities 261
Base Metal Discontinuities 261
Designing Weld Joints 261
Basis of Welded Design 262
Stresses in Pressure Vessels 266
Pipelines 267
3. Non-Destructive Testing 270
1. Introduction 272
2. Visual Inspection (VT) 274
Advantages of Visual Inspection 275
3. Radiography 278
Source of Radiation 279
X-Rays 280
Effect of Kv and MA 282
Scatter Radiation 283
X-Ray Equipment 284
Power Sources 284
Control Panel 285
Gamma Rays 286
Artificial Sources 287
Half-Life 287
Film 288
Radiographic Exposure Techniques 290
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) 291
Panoramic Technique 291
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) 291
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) 291
Radiographic Image Quality 293
Radiographic Contrast 293
Subject Contrast 294
Film Contrast 294
Radiographic Definition 295
Exposure Geometry 295
Film Graininess 296
Image Quality Indicator (IQI) or Penetrameter 297
Radiation Safety 297
4. Magnetic Particle Testing 300
Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing 301
Calculating Magnetizing Current 302
Types of Magnetizing Current 303
Inspection Method 304
Pre-Cleaning of Test Surface 304
Drying after Preparation 304
Application of the Current 304
Alternating Current 304
Direct Current 305
Continuous or Residual Application of Current 305
Dry Method of Inspection 306
Wet Method of Inspection 306
Viewing Conditions 307
Inspection under Ultraviolet (Black) Light 307
5. Penetrant Testing 308
General Procedure 309
Penetrant Materials 309
Specific Requirements 309
Control of Contaminants 309
Surface Preparation 310
Drying after Preparation 311
Techniques 311
Techniques for Standard Temperatures 311
Penetrant Application 311
Penetration Time (Dwell Time) 312
Excess Penetrant Removal 312
Removing Excess Water-Washable Penetrant 312
Removing Excess Post-Emulsifying Penetrant 312
Removing Excess Solvent-Removable Penetrant 312
Drying Process after Excess Penetrant Removal 312
Developing 313
Interpretation 313
Final Interpretation 313
Characterizing Indication(s) 313
Color Contrast Penetrant 314
Fluorescent Penetrant 314
Evaluation 315
Liquid Penetrant Comparator 315
6. Ultrasonic Testing 318
Theory of Sound Wave and Propagation 319
Theory of Sound 320
Piezoelectricity 321
Sound Beam Reflection 321
Sound Beam Frequencies 321
Sound Beam Velocities 322
Snell’s Law of Reflection and Refraction 323
Understanding the Variables Associated with Ultrasonic Testing 324
Selection of Test Equipment 325
A-Scan Equipment 326
B-Scan Equipment 326
C-Scan Equipment 326
Testing Procedure 327
Role of Coupling in Testing 328
7. Eddy Current Testing 330
Method 330
8. Acoustic Emission Testing (AET) 332
Ongoing Developments in the AET Field 332
Future of AET 333
9. Ferrite Testing 346
Effect of Ferrite in Austenitic Welds 346
10. Pressure Testing 348
Purpose 348
Method 348
Test Medium 349
Sensitivity of the Test 349
Proof Testing 349
Practical Application of Hydrostatic Testing 350
Critical Flaw Size 352
4. Codes and Standards 354
1. Introduction 356
2. Codes, Specifications and Standards 358
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) 359
Background and History 359
Present Day ASME 361
List of all Twelve ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessels Codes 361
ASME Section VIII, Division 1 (Pressure Vessels) 362
ASME Code for Pressure Piping 362
ASME Section V 365
The National Board 365
The National Board Inspection Code (NBIC) 367
American Petroleum Institute 367
API 653 (Above-Ground Storage Tanks) 368
API 510 (Pressure Vessels) 368
API 570 (Pressure Piping) 368
API RP 579 (Fitness for Service) 368
API RP 580 (Risk Based Inspection) 368
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) 368
Index 372

Erscheint lt. Verlag	1.11.2011
Sprache	englisch
Themenwelt	Technik ► Bauwesen
Themenwelt	Technik ► Maschinenbau
ISBN-10	0-12-391917-7 / 0123919177
ISBN-13	978-0-12-391917-5 / 9780123919175

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