Dietary Nutrients, Additives and Fish Health (eBook)

Cheng-Sheng Lee (Autor)

eBook Download: EPUB

2015
John Wiley & Sons (Verlag)
9781119005537 (ISBN)

Infos

Fish nutrition can be the deciding factor between a robust and healthy farmed fish population and low aquaculture production. In an age where chemicals and antibiotics are under greater scrutiny than ever, a strong understanding of the role of nutrients and feed additives is essential in the aquaculture industry.

Dietary Nutrients, Additives and Fish Health is a comprehensive review of dietary nutrients, antinutritional factors and toxins, and non-nutrient dietary additives, and their effects on fish performance and immune system function, as well as overall health.

The book opens with an overview of fish immune systems and health. Subsequent chapters delve into proteins and amino acids, lipids and fatty acids, carbohydrates, beta glucans, vitamins, minerals, antinutrients, mycotoxins, nucleotides, prebiotics, probiotics, organic acids and their salts, and plant extracts and their impacts on fish health, growth, and development. The text then concludes with a chapter on feeding practices.

Authored by leaders in aquaculture, Dietary Nutrients, Additives and Fish Health will be an invaluable resource to graduate students, researchers and professionals alike.

Cheng-Sheng Lee is the Director of the Center for Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture, NIFA-USDA at Oceanic Institute of Hawaii Pacific University, HI, USA.

Chhorn Lim is a Nutrition Scientist at the United States Department of Agriculture's Aquatic Animal Health Research Laboratory in Auburn, Alabama, USA.

Delbert M. Gatlin III is Regents Professor and Associate Department Head for Research and Graduate Programs in the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences at Texas A&M University, Texas, USA.

Carl Webster is Center Director/Research Leader of the USDA-ARS Harry K. Dupree Stuttgart National Aquaculture Research Center, Stuttgart, AR, USA.

Inhalt

List of Contributors ix

Preface xiii

Acknowledgements xv

1 Overview of Fish Immune System and Infectious Diseases 1
Craig Shoemaker, De-Hai Xu, Benjamin LaFrentz, and Scott LaPatra

2 Protein, Amino Acids, and Ingredients 25
Carl D. Webster and Kenneth R. Thompson

3 Lipids and Fatty Acids 47
Douglas R. Tocher and Brett D. Glencross

4 Carbohydrates 95
Gro-Ingunn Hemre and Dong-Fang Deng

5 beta-Glucans 111
Ann L. Gannam

6 Vitamins (Excluding C and E) 125
Shi-Yen Shiau and Yu-Hung Lin

7 The Effect of Vitamin C on Fish Health 151
Viviane Verlhac Trichet, Ester Santigosa, Eve Cochin, and Jacques Gabaudan

8 Vitamin E 173
Marisol Izquierdo and Mónica Betancor

9 Minerals 195
Carl D. Webster and Chhorn Lim

10 Antinutrients 211
Åshild Krogdahl and Anne Marie Bakke

11 Mycotoxin Contamination of Fish Feeds 237
Bruce B. Manning

12 Nucleotides 249
Peng Li, Jianmin Zhao, and Delbert M. Gatlin III

13 Prebiotics 271
Delbert M. Gatlin III

14 Gastrointestinal Microorganisms of Fish and Probiotics 283
Viswanath Kiron

15 Organic Acids and Their Salts 305
Chhorn Lim, Christian Lückstädt, Carl D. Webster, and Phillip Kesius

16 Plant Extracts 321
Galina Jeney, Lourens De Wet, Zsigmond Jeney, and Guojun Yin

17 Feeding Practices and Fish Health 333
Chhorn Lim, Carl D. Webster, and Cheng-Sheng Lee

Index 347

Textauszug

Chapter 1

Overview of Fish Immune System and Infectious Diseases

Craig Shoemaker1, De-Hai Xu1, Benjamin LaFrentz1, and Scott LaPatra2

1United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Aquatic Animal Health Research Unit, Auburn, AL, USA

2Clear Springs Foods Inc., Research Division, Buhl, ID, USA

Introduction

Cultured finfish are an important source of animal protein worldwide (Naylor et al. 2009), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that over half of the world’s supply of fish and shellfish is now from aquaculture (FAO 2008). As fish consumption increases and natural fish stocks decrease, aquaculture practices will need to intensify in order to meet global demand. Intensification will likely lead to an increase in disease problems, due to a higher number of animals in a limited and confined environment and the influence of poor environmental conditions (i.e., water quality) on the fish immune system. For example, limited disease-related problems were reported in the channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) industry prior to 1980 because stocking densities were less than 10,000 fish/ha and maximum feeding allowances were about 50 kg/ha/day with most farms using a single crop system (Hawke and Khoo 2004). Production intensity increased following that time with >12,000 fish/ha stocked, and feeding increased accordingly to 90–112 kg/ha/day. Multi-cropping systems (i.e., various sizes of fish cultured together) that utilized limited water exchange were also employed (Hawke and Khoo 2004). As a result, up to 45% of on-farm losses were reported to be due to infectious disease (USDA/APHIS 1997). The emergence or re-emergence of pathogens will likely be seen in many aquaculture ventures as production intensifies and degrades environmental parameters.

Immunity is the inherited ability to recognize and respond defensively against foreign living and non-living agents. The immune response is a coordinated response of immune cells and molecules and memory in vertebrate animals (including fish) that occurs as a result of recognition of foreign agents. Fish have evolved with both non-specific (innate immunity) and adaptive (acquired) immune mechanisms. The innate immune response is limited in specificity via germline encoded pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) that respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) such as bacterial or fungal glycoproteins and lipopolysaccharides (Kawai and Akira 2010; Boltana et al. 2011). The innate response is an important first line of defense, especially in larval fish. Research suggests that the innate immune response is important in priming and regulating adaptive immunity (Fearon and Locksley 1996). Adaptive immunity allows for specificity and memory (Pilström 2005; Secombes et al. 2005). This chapter provides an overview of the fish immune system and the infectious diseases of fish (bacterial, viral, parasitic, and fungal).

Immune Organs and Tissues

Thymus

The thymus of fish is composed of lymphoblasts (early immune cells) in a reticular endothelial cell network; it is the first organ to obtain mature lymphocytes during immune maturation (Manning 1994; Rombout et al. 2005). Evidence in fish supports the notion that the thymus is responsible for the development of T-lymphocytes (T-cells), as is the case in other jawed vertebrates. T-cell selection occurs in the thymus, and only T-cells that recognize foreign antigenic peptides in the context of self major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules are released (Kuby 1994). T-cells that recognize self antigen and self MHC are killed via programmed cell death or apoptosis. Mature T-cells are then released from the thymus and become distributed in the immunological organs and tissues (Rombout et al. 2005). In adult fish, as in mammals, the thymus decreases significantly in size.

Kidney

The kidney is important in hematopoiesis and contains two segments: the anterior or head kidney and the posterior or trunk kidney. Blood cell differentiation occurs here instead of in bone marrow, as in mammals. Early in development, the entire kidney is involved in production of blood cells and early immune responses. The anterior kidney is considered the primary B-lymphocyte (B-cell) organ and is where the B-cells develop. As the fish matures, the posterior kidney is primarily involved in filtration and/or urinary functions. The kidney also contains the reticuloendothelial system, which is a network of sinusoids lined with phagocytic cells that have roles in antigen presentation. There is usually a concentration of melanomacrophage centers consisting of macrophages, lymphocytes, and plasma cells, and these centers are involved in antigen trapping and immune responses (Agius and Roberts 2003).

Spleen

The spleen is a secondary immune organ in fish and is involved in antigen processing, antibody production, and memory. Most fish spleens are not organized into red and white pulp, as in mammals. Manning (1994) demonstrated in carp (Cyprinus carpio) that the proliferative response to antigen was scattered and not organized into thymus-dependent and -independent regions. Melanomacrophage centers are also located in the spleen and are primarily responsible for the breakdown of erythrocytes. However, as discussed above, they may be involved in antigen presentation and immunologic memory. In rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Hadidi et al. (2008) demonstrated that the spleen size predicted the resistance to Flavobacterium psychrophilum, suggesting a role in innate immunity.

Gut

Gut associated lymphatic tissue (GALT) consists of lymphoid aggregates and follicles in the lamina propria of the intestine (Rombout et al. 1989). Immunoglobulin (Ig) + and Ig − cells (B- and T-cells) are present in the intestinal epithelium, suggesting importance as an immune tissue (Rombout et al. 1993). Antigen-specific antibody is secreted onto mucosal surfaces of the intestine. Fish do not have lymph nodes; most likely, their kidney, spleen, and GALT play an equivalent role to the lymph system in mammals with respect to antigen processing and presentation. Rombout et al. (2011) published an excellent review of the present state of fish intestinal immunology.

Natural Defense Barriers

Skin and Mucus

The mucus and skin/scales of fish act as a natural barrier to foreign substances and pathogens. Mucus consists of glycoproteins (lectins) or mucopolysaccharide proteins produced by goblet cells in the skin epidermis, gills, and mucosa of the gut (Dalmo et al. 1997; Sadovy et al. 2005). The mucus can serve as a non-specific defense mechanism, as it can result in sloughing off the gills, skin, or gut lining, thereby preventing colonization by fish pathogens. The mucus also contains non-specific humoral molecules and specific antibodies.

Innate Immunity and Disease Resistance

Non-specific Immune Cells

Fish phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) express receptors on their surface that recognize invading pathogens and activate an innate immune response. These receptors are termed pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs), and these will sense the presence of pathogens through recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The interaction between PRRs on phagocytic cells and PAMPs of pathogens leads to the initiation of the innate immune response. Recent reviews provide current status of PRRs in fish (Boltana et al. 2011; Hansen et al. 2011; Palti 2011) and the antimicrobial mechanisms of fish that can be induced through PRR and PAMP interactions (Rieger and Barreda 2011).

Monocytes/macrophages

Monocytes and/or tissue macrophages are probably the single-most important cell in the immune response of fish. Not only are they important in inflammation and the production of cytokines (Clem et al. 1985), but they are also the primary cells involved in phagocytosis and killing of pathogens upon initial recognition and subsequent infection (Shoemaker et al. 1997). Macrophages also have an important role in antigen-presentation, thus linking the non-specific and specific immune responses. Forlenza et al. (2011) recently provided an excellent review of macrophage activation in fish.

Neutrophils

Neutrophils (granulocytes) are the primary cells involved in the initial stages of inflammation (12–24 hours) in fish (Manning 1994); their function includes phagocytosis and production of cytokines to recruit immune cells to the damaged and/or infected area. In channel catfish the neutrophil is phagocytic, but it appears to kill bacteria by extracellular mechanisms rather than via intracellular mechanisms (Ellis 1981; Waterstrat et al. 1991). The role of the neutrophils in immunity likely varies among different species of fish.

Non-specific Cytotoxic Cells

Non-specific cytotoxic cells (NCC) are present in fish (Evans and Jaso-Friedman 1992) and their functions are closely related to those of mammalian natural killer cells. These cells can kill a variety of target cells including tumor cells, virally infected cells, and protozoan parasites. NCCs function by lysis of target cells following receptor binding and signaling of the lytic cycle. These cells are important in parasite (Evans and Gratzek 1989) and viral (Hogan et al. 1996)...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 5.5.2015
• Reihe/Serie: United States Aquaculture Society series
• Reihe/Serie: United States Aquaculture Society series
• Reihe/Serie: United States Aquaculture Society series
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Sachbuch/Ratgeber ► Natur / Technik ► Naturführer
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie
• Themenwelt: Technik
• Themenwelt: Weitere Fachgebiete ► Land- / Forstwirtschaft / Fischerei
• Schlagworte: Aquaculture • Aquaculture, Fisheries & Fish Science • Aquakultur • Aquakultur, Fischereiwesen u. Fischforschung • Fischfutter • Fischzucht • Fish nutrition, fish population, aquaculture, aquaculture production. fish nutrients, fish health, dietary nutritents, toxins, dietary additives, fish performance, fish immune system function, proteins and amino acids, lipids and fatty acids, carbohydrates, beta glucans, vitamins, minerals, antinutrients, mycotoxins, nucleotides, prebiotics, probiotics, organic acids and their salts, plant extracts, fish feeding practices
• ISBN-13: 9781119005537 / 9781119005537