The first part contains basic approaches and integrated models as well as general theories and their implementation into Traffic and Transport Psychology.
The second part deals with the driver, especially cognition, performance, social and differential effects and impairment. Important aspects are treated, such as speed perception, reaction times, interaction, risk acceptance, aggression and gender differences. Special chapters refer to performance and fatigue.
The third part focuses on safety, driver support, selection and influencing drivers by enforcement, training and programs for the rehabilitation of traffic offenders. Classic ergonomic methods are discussed as well as modern telematic devices, or trends regarding driver-assessment.
In the last part, current developments are presented in relation to better mobility and the protection of the environment. Questions are asked, such as whether we could reduce the use of cars, how travel behaviour can be modified or to what extent the use of alternatives to motor vehicles benefits safety as well as the environment.
This work is not only important for psychologists. It should be read by all transport professionals interested in the application of psychology to traffic.
This volume gives an overview of the trends in Traffic and Transport Psychology. It reflects the considerable development of the most important factors for driving a road vehicle, and the variety of international research approaches. The first part contains basic approaches and integrated models as well as general theories and their implementation into Traffic and Transport Psychology. The second part deals with the driver, especially cognition, performance, social and differential effects and impairment. Important aspects are treated, such as speed perception, reaction times, interaction, risk acceptance, aggression and gender differences. Special chapters refer to performance and fatigue. The third part focuses on safety, driver support, selection and influencing drivers by enforcement, training and programs for the rehabilitation of traffic offenders. Classic ergonomic methods are discussed as well as modern telematic devices, or trends regarding driver-assessment. In the last part, current developments are presented in relation to better mobility and the protection of the environment. Questions are asked, such as whether we could reduce the use of cars, how travel behaviour can be modified or to what extent the use of alternatives to motor vehicles benefits safety as well as the environment. This work is not only important for psychologists. It should be read by all transport professionals interested in the application of psychology to traffic.
Cover 1
Related Books 2
Related Journals 2
Contents 5
Preface 9
General 11
Introduction 13
Fairy Tales 13
Models and Theories 13
Attitudes and Driver Performance 14
Individual Differences 15
Accident-Countermeasures 15
References 16
Driver Behaviour as a Hierarchical System 19
The Purpose of Theories and Models 19
How to Define Driving 19
A Theory of Accidents or a Theory of Normal Driving Behaviour 20
Theories and Models of Driver Behaviour 21
Hierarchical Models in Driving 21
Applications and Other Use of the Extended Theory of Internal Models in Driver Behaviour 29
Conclusions 30
References 31
Behavioural Adaptation to In-Vehicle Safety Measures:Past Ideas and Future Directions 35
Introduction 35
Empirical Research to Date 39
Engineering Safety Interventions 39
Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) Devices 43
Future Directions 46
Trust in Automation 46
Locus of Control 48
Sensation-Seeking 49
A Quantitative Theory of Behavioural Adaptation 50
References 52
Theories of Science in Traffic Psychology 57
Introduction 57
Problem Definition 57
Dealing with Problems:Two Different Types of Assumptions 58
The Practitoner's View 60
The Results of the Discussion 63
Problem Identification 63
Which Solutions do we have? 64
Which Theory should we Choose? 64
Evaluation is the One and Only Empirical Test of Solutions 64
"Assuming Forbidden"? 65
Academic Versus Applied Science, or Academic and Applied Science? 65
The Heuristic Approach 66
Empiricism and Theory 66
References 67
Road User 69
Cognition and Performance 69
Cognitive Effects of Environmental Knowledge on Urban Route Planning Strategies 71
Introduction 71
Problem Solving in Design Activities 71
Urban Route Planning and Onboard Systems 72
Method of the Experimental Study 72
Analysis of Results 73
Results 74
Strategies Used for Problem-Representation Construction 74
Type 1 74
Type 2 75
Type 3 75
Strategies Used for Solution Development 76
Strategies Used for Solution Evaluation 78
Discussion and Conclusion 78
Construction of a Problem Representation 78
Solution-Development Activity 79
Solution Evaluation 79
Acknowledgements 80
References 80
Perception of Speed and Increments in Cars 83
Introduction 83
Experiment 1 84
Method 84
Results 85
Experiment 2 90
Method 90
Results and Discussion 91
Experiment 3 92
Method 92
Results 92
General Discussion 93
Acknowledgements 94
References 94
Comparison of Reaction Times at Low and High Speeds 95
Introduction 95
Experiment 1:The Driver's RT for Stimulation of the Central Area of the Retina 96
Purpose 96
Method 96
Result and Discussion 97
Experiment 2:The Driver's RT for Upper Central Area Stimulus 98
Purpose 98
Method 98
Result and Discussion 98
General Discussion 99
Conclusions 100
References 100
Comprehension and Evaluation of Road Users' Signalling-An International Comparison Between Finland,Germany and Japan 101
Introduction 101
Method 102
Subjects 102
Stimuli 103
Procedure 103
Results and Discussion 103
Formal Device-Based Signals (FDS) and Formal Gesture-Based Signals (FGS) 103
Informal Signals 106
Reference 110
Interaction and Communication in Dynamic Control Tasks:Ship Handling and Car Driving 111
Introduction 111
Ship Handling and Car Driving:Similarities and Differences 111
Person-Related Aspects 112
Tool or Device Aspects 112
Task Demands 112
Ship Handling 113
Method 113
Findings 114
Car Driving 116
Method 116
Findings 117
Conclusion 118
Synthesis 118
Looking to the Future 119
References 120
Training of Tram Drivers in Workload Management-Workload Assessment in Real Life and in a Driving/Traffic Simulator 123
Introduction 123
Job Characteristics of Tram Drivers 124
Classification of Situations with High Workload 124
Measurement of Mental Workload 124
The Driving and Traffic Simulator 126
Dual Task Paradigm - the Speech Task 127
Results 127
Results of the Speech Task 127
Results of the Driving Data 129
Results of the Questionnaire 129
Summary 130
References 130
Road User 133
Social and Differential Psychology 133
Road Safety:What has Social Psychology to Offer? 135
Introduction 135
Attitudes 136
Cognitive Biases 138
Crime and Road Traffic Accidents 140
Travel Mode Choice 140
Targeting Interventions 141
Summary 142
References 143
Risk Taking and Self-Efficacy among Young Male Drivers:Self-Efficacy and Changing Task Demands 145
Introduction 145
Definition of Self-Efficacy 146
Scope of the Study 146
Main Objective 146
Method and Procedure 147
Overview 147
Participants 147
Tasks 147
Measure of Self-Efficacy 148
Design 148
Validity Checks 149
Results 149
Self-Efficacy and Task Performance 149
Changes in Efficacy Expectation and Performance 152
Discussion 153
Acknowledgements 154
References 154
Errors,Lapses and Violations in the Drivers of Heavy Vehicles 157
Introduction 157
Method 158
Results and Discussion 159
Descriptive Statistics 159
Factor Analysis 159
Correlations 162
Prediction 163
Conclusions 163
References 164
Anger and Aggression in Driving and Non-Driving Contexts 165
Introduction 165
Study 1 166
Method 166
Results and Discussion 167
Study 2 169
Method 169
Results and Discussion 170
Study 3 171
Method 171
Results and Discussion 172
General Discussion 172
References 173
Abusing the Roadway "Commons":Understanding Aggressive Driving Through an Environmental Preservation Theory 175
Driving Aggression 175
The "Commons" 176
The "Common" Roadway 176
Roadway Overpopulation 177
Saving the Natural Commons 179
Saving the Roadway Commons 180
Perceived and Real Consequences 181
Increasing Consequences 181
Challenges to Saving the Commons 182
Conclusions 183
References 184
Characteristics and Crash-Involvement of Speeding,Violating and Thrill-Seeking Drivers 187
Introduction 187
Sample 188
Measures 188
Speeding 188
Violating 188
Thrill-Seeking 189
Characteristics of Speeding Drivers 190
Speeding Offences and Crash Involvement 191
Speed Choice 191
Normal and Preferred Speeds and Crash Involvement 194
Speed Choice and Driving as Part of Your Work 194
Driving as Part of Your Work and Crash Involvement 195
Characteristics of Violating Drivers 196
Violations and Crash Involvement 198
Violations and Driving as Part of Your Work 198
Driving as Part of Your Work, Violations and Crash Involvement 198
Characteristics of Thrill-Seeking Drivers 199
Thrill-Seeking and Crash Involvement 200
Thrill-Seeking and Driving as Part of Your Work 200
Summary and Conclusions 200
References 201
Driver Behaviour and its Consequence:The Case of Chinese Drivers 203
Introduction 203
Method 204
Key Findings 205
Mean Scores 205
Factor Structures 205
Factor Scores and Accident Involvement 205
Discussion 206
References 208
Are Female Drivers Adopting Male Drivers' Way of Driving? 211
Introduction 211
Reasons for Choosing this Topic 211
Purpose of this Study 212
Data and Method 213
Results 213
Proportion of Speeding Drivers 213
Accidents During Evenings and Night-Time 213
Proportion of Drunk Drivers 214
Proportion of Drivers with Previous Traffic Offences 215
Conclusions 215
References 217
The Relationship Between Accidents and Near-Accidents in a Sample of Company Vehicle Drivers 219
Introduction 219
Method 220
The Questionnaire Study 220
The Diary Study 221
Results 221
Real and Near Accident Coding Scheme 222
Accident Typology 223
Discussion 225
References 228
Road User 228
Impairment 229
Fatigue and Driving 231
Introduction 231
The Size of the Problem Fatigue Surveys and Crash Data
Causes of Driver Fatigue 232
Sleep Loss 232
Driving at Different Times of Day 233
Long Hours of Driving 233
Countermeasures to Fatigue 234
Behavioural Countermeasures 234
Technological Countermeasures 234
Regulatory Countermeasures 237
References 237
Why is Driver Impairment Difficult to Assess? 241
Introduction 241
What Constitutes Driver Impairment 243
Inducing Impairment 243
Accident Precursors 243
Expert Observation 243
Psycho-Physiological Criteria to Define Impaired Driving 244
Categories of Driving Impairment 248
Integration 251
Conclusion 251
References 252
Individual Differences in Driver Risk Acceptance During Sleep Deprivation 255
Introduction 255
Risk Acceptance 256
Measuring Risk Acceptance 256
Method 257
Subjects 257
Procedure 257
Experimental Design 258
Results 259
Implications for Performance 260
Model Fits 260
Modelling Individual Differences 261
Effects of Sleep Deprivation 262
Discussion 264
Future Directions 265
References 265
Compensation for Drowsiness and Fatigue 267
Introduction 267
Participants 268
Method 268
Procedure 270
Method of Analysis 270
Results 271
Discussion 274
References 276
Cognitive/Neuropsychological Functioning and Compensation Related to Car Driving Performance in Older Adults 277
Introduction 277
Relevance of the Study 277
Ageing, Cognition and Car Driving 278
Compensation 278
General Methodology 279
Research Sample 279
Dependent Variables 279
The Research Phases 280
First-Tier Screening Battery 280
The Relation between Cognitive/Neuropsychological Factors and Driving 280
Detailed Accident Analysis 281
Strategic and Tactical Compensation 281
General Conclusion 282
References 283
Safety 285
Driver Information and Support Systems 285
Driver Support Systems: Current Trends 287
Introduction 287
Driving-Aids Before 1985 287
Driving-Aids, Job-Aids, Assistance 288
Some Examples of What has been Done 288
Explosion 289
R & D, Organisations, Architecture
The US 290
Asia-Pacific 291
Europe 292
Ford 296
GM 296
Toyota 296
Nissan 296
Fiat 296
DaimlerChrysler 297
Renault 297
PSA 297
Trends 297
Human Factors, Driver Behaviour 298
Conclusion 298
References 298
Appendix 300
10 Useful Internet Sites 300
Glossary 300
Behavioural Adaptation to an Advanced Driver Support System 301
Introduction 301
Method 302
Participants 302
Driving Simulator 302
IN-ARTE Human Machine Interface (HMI) 303
Scenarios 303
Procedure 304
Analyses 305
Results 305
Warnings and System Interventions 305
Critical Incidents 306
Lane Keeping 307
Speed 308
Discussion 308
References 310
The Effects of Different Display Types with Respect to Reading Numerical Information and Detecting Speed Change 311
Introdution 311
Experiment I 314
Method 314
Results 315
Experiment II 316
Method 317
Results 317
Experiment III 317
Method 318
Results 319
Overall Discussion 320
Overall Conclusions 323
References 324
The Brake Activity of Car Drivers and that of an Automatic Brake System in Simulated Critical and Non-Critical Driving Scenarios 327
Introdution 327
Background 327
Safety Margins During Catch-up and Car Following 327
Method 328
Subjects 328
Apparatus 328
Procedure 329
Results 329
Brake Activity in an Emergency Scenario 330
Brake Activity in a Catch-up Scenario 331
Discussion 331
References 332
Changes to Driving Behaviour in Conditions of Reduced Visibility Using an Infrared Vision Support System: Driving Simulator Evaluation Results 333
Background 333
The Need for Driver Vision Support in Conditions of Reduced Visibility 333
Technological Solutions Currently Offered 334
The "Darwin" Project 335
The DARWIN Driver Vision Support System 335
Objectives of the Human Factors Evaluations 335
The Human Factors Evaluations 336
Method 336
Key Objective and Subjective Parameters 337
Results 337
Discussion 340
Conclusions 341
Acknowledgement 341
References 342
Attitudes to Telematic Driving Constraints 343
Introduction 343
Sample 343
Usefulness and Acceptability of Telematic Devices 344
Characteristics of Car Drivers Finding Telematic Devices Useful and Acceptable 344
Evaluation of Telematic Devices and Speed Choice 345
Summary 348
References 348
Driver Assistance Systems: Safe or Unsafe 349
Introdution 349
Hypotheses Concerning ACC 350
Verification of the Engineering Hypotheses 351
Validation of the Behavioural and Human Factors Hypotheses 352
Situation Awareness and "Authority" 352
Mode Errors and Monitoring 352
Behavioural Adaptation and Driver Type 352
Loss of Skill in the Long Term 353
Discussion: A Contrast Between Two Vehicle Control Systems 353
Conclusions 354
References 354
Safety 357
Enforcement and Training 357
Questions for Psychologists Related to Enforcement Strategies 359
Introduction 359
Underlying Reasons for Non-Compliance with Traffic Rules 359
How Enforcement Works and What Explanations Psychologists Offer 361
Psychologists' Contribution of Enforcement: Today and in the Future 364
References 366
Evidence for the Effectiveness of a High Enforcement Strategy: A Case Study from the Republic of Ireland 367
Introduction 367
Method 368
Results 368
Levels of Surveillance and Enforcement 368
Perceptions of Increased Surveillance and Enforcement 368
Comparative Survey of Knowledge and Perceptions 370
Changes in Compliance 371
Changes in Accident Rates: Analysis of Hospital Data 372
Changes in Accident Rates: National Road Accident Database 373
Conclusions 375
Acknowledgements 375
References 375
The Development of Training Courses for Switzerland's Two-Phase Driver Training Model 377
Introduction 377
Current State of Knowledge About Causes of Accidents of Young Drivers 378
Resuts of the Inquiry 378
Concretization of the Further Modules 380
Basic Thoughts 380
Objectives of the Advanced Courses 380
Formal Elements of the 16 Hours of Advanced Training 381
Methods 381
References 383
Safety 385
Selection and Rehabilitation 385
Driver Selection and Improvement in Austria 387
Introduction 387
History of the Measures 387
Development of Driver Selection 387
Development of Driver Improvement 388
Organizational and Structural Change 389
Concept of Driver Selection 389
Concept of Driver Improvement 390
Evaluation Studies of Driver Selection 391
Criterion Validation with Driving Behaviour 392
Extreme Group Validation 393
Evaluation Studies of Driver Improvement Programs 395
References 396
Driver Selection and Improvement in Germany 401
Driver Selection by Medico-Psychological Assessments 401
Quality Assurance and Evaluation 402
Principles of the Psychological Interview 403
Conclusions 405
References 405
Regrant the Licence Earlier? Effects of Accelerated Assessment and Rehabilitation Within the Legal Ban Period of DWI Drivers in Northern Germany 407
Introduction 407
The Acquisition of the Clients 409
Effect of the BUSS-System on the Standards of the Counsellors 409
Methods and Results 410
Comparability of Experimentals and Controls 410
Time Schedules after DWI (Experimentals vs. Controls) 413
Relapse Rates Collected by the CTR (Central Traffic Register) 415
Summary and Conclusions 419
References 419
Driving Tests - Test Reliability, Consistency of Candidates Performance and Other Issues 421
Introduction 421
The Reliability of Driving Tests 422
Components of Unreliability 422
Is Test Reliability Important? 422
A Test - Retest Study 422
Explaining Test-Retest Inconsistency 424
A Simplified Model of a Driving Test 424
Improving the Reliability of the Driving Test 426
Other Approaches to Improving Novice Driver Safety 429
Conclusions 429
Acknowledgements 430
References 430
Accident Proneness: The History of an Idea 431
Introduction 431
The Search for a Measure 432
Public Acceptance 433
Interlude: Why so Popular? 435
Destruction of Accident Proneness 436
The Counter-Revolution 437
The Driver Again Emerges 438
Conclusion 440
Caveat 440
References 441
Mobility and Environment 443
Psychological Motivation of Pro-Environmental Travel Behaviour in an Urban Area 445
Introduction 445
The Theoretical Framework 446
Study I 446
Participants 446
The Physical Environment 446
Measurements and Statistical Analyses 447
Results of Study I 448
Comments 449
Study II 449
Participants 449
Materials 449
Measurements, Design and Procedures 450
Effects of the Intervention 450
Comments 450
General Conclusions 451
References 451
Car Use:Lust and Must 453
Introduction 453
Method 455
Respondents and Questionnaire 455
Measures 456
Results 457
Correlations Between Car Use and Motives for Car Use 457
Explaining Car Use 457
Differences Between Respondents Groups 458
Conclusions 459
Acknowledgements 460
References 461
Is Employees' Achievement Motivation and Performance Affected by Commuting Stress? 463
Introduction 463
Study Design 463
Results 465
Subjects 465
Health and Psychosomatic Complaints 465
Situation at the Beginning of the Trip 465
Strain Caused by the Trip to Work 466
Subjective Evaluation of the Working Situation 467
State of the Subjects at the End of their Trip to Work 467
Discussion 468
References 468
Who Will Reduce their Car Use-and Who Will Not? 469
Introduction 469
Sample 470
Car Use 470
Preferred and Anticipated Changes in Car and Public Transport Use 472
Judged Effectiveness of Policy Measures to Reduce Own Car Use 473
Who Would be Moved from their Cars by Pull and by Push Measures? 475
Conclusion 476
References 477
Perceptions of Car Users and Policy Makers on the Effectiveness and Acceptability of Car Travel Reduction Measures:An Attribution Theory Approach 479
Introduction 479
Attribution Theory 479
Respondents 481
Residents 481
Businesses 481
Policy Makers 482
Final Data Set 482
Measurement of Variables:Willingness and Ability to Change 482
Results 483
What Car Travel Reduction Measures Would Respondents Like to See Implemented? 483
The Actor-Observer Effect and Individual Car Use 484
The Actor-Observer Effect and Car Use in Organisations 484
How Would Residents Respond to Various Car Travel Reduction Measures? 485
How Would Organisations Respond to Various Measures? 487
Conclusions and Discussion 488
References 488
The Prediction of Travel Behaviour Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour 491
Introduction 491
Method 493
Procedure 493
Results 494
Prediction of Intention 494
Discussion 497
Conclusion 499
References 499
Descriptions of Cities 501
Amsterdam 501
Barcelona 501
Copenhagen 501
Gothenburg 502
Public Acceptability of Travel Demand Management 503
Aims of the Transprice Project 503
Public Acceptability Surveys 504
Survey Methodology 504
Results 505
References 510
Evaluations of Bike and Walk Systems 511
Introduction 511
Method 512
Respondents 512
Mail-Back Questionnaires 512
Bike and Walk VCR Shows 512
Procedure 513
Results 513
Correspondence Between Believed and Actual Area Type 513
Statements and Bugs 514
Quality Assessments 515
Discussion 517
Acknowledgements 517
References 518
Introduction
Talib Rothengatter; Raphael D. Huguenin
FAIRY TALES
Accidents occur, like encounters with fairies or werewolfs, to the weary traveller, but accidents or encounters with fairies or werewolves, are random events. The behaviour of the traveller, and his mental state, are factors that influence the likelihood of occurrence. How important these factors are, is matter of debate. One extreme view is the sustainable transport philosophy maintaining that sustainable road design would virtually eliminate accidents and would ensure that those accidents that would occur will not inflict serious injury or death. No such claim is made about fairies or werewolves, but it is likely that in an orderly world they too will behave orderly. On the other hand of the spectrum remains the assertion made that 85% of the accidents occurring can be attributed to human error. Obviously, when humans are prone to imagine fairies or werewolfs, they are prone to other types of error as well.
In 1994, a special issue on traffic psychology appeared, based on presentations at the 23rd International Congress of Applied Psychology. In this issue, we contended that traffic psychology appeared a promising new area of research (Rothengatter, 1997). Research into road user behaviour and transport safety had been dominated for decades by other professions. Consequently, theoretical concepts and models dominant in mainstream psychology were not considered in the domain of road user behaviour. Application of these concepts and models would enhance our understanding of road user behaviour and would help to create the new possibilities of influencing road user behaviour.
MODELS AND THEORIES
Elsewhere, we argued that traffic psychology would benefit from developing a general domain model or theory (Huguenin, 1997). Although, a plethora of models and theories has been developed (see Ranney, 1994, for an overview), most of these are too specific to serve as a general research framework. As a result, research results often are reported without reference to any theoretical framework. We contended that a general model or theory would have to incorporate at least a component related to the disposition of the driver; a component related to social processes, cognition and motor skills, and a component related to situational characteristics (Huguenin, 1997).
Two concepts appear central in the earlier discussion on models of road user behaviour: risk and motivation (e.g. Huguenin, 1988: Rothengatter, 1988, 1990; Summala, 1988). Road user behaviour was conceptualised as adaptive to perceived risk. Road users were perceived as risk adaptors. If they perceived the risk to be high, they would adjust their behaviour to lower their risk. The debate concerned the parameters (zero risk or target risk). In Summala’s zero-risk model, road users act if risk was perceived above zero; in Wilde’s target risk model (1994) road users act if risk was above target risk, but also act if risk was below target risk. That road users regulated their behaviour based on perceived risk was hardly in question; road users were risk adaptors. The risk models have been criticized on various grounds (see Michon, 1989) such as the presence of a “monitor” or “comparator” in the models, the lack of definition of the risk construct (individual or aggregate) and the discrepancy between “perceived” (subjective) risk and “actual” (objective) risk. Experimental studies meanwhile have demonstrated that drivers also display adaptive behaviour when the perceived risk is low (e.g. Van der Hulst, Rothengatter & Meijman, 1998; Cnossen, Rothengatter & Meijman, 2000). Instead of adapting their behaviour to perceived risk, drivers were found to adapt their strategic and tactical behaviour to experienced task demand, the amount of effort required to maintain adequate performance. This task demand was found to fluctuate as a result of both task characteristics such as complexity or preview and state characteristics such as time-on-task or fatigue. Fuller (2000) introduced a task capability model in which drivers match performance with task demands. Although this model needs further elaboration (it incorporates a task difficulty model that again uses a comparator, this time comparing perceived task difficulty and acceptable task difficulty), it is clearly a step forward from the earlier risk models as the components of the model do allow empirical verification.
ATTITUDES AND DRIVER PERFORMANCE
Risk and performance models have one element in common. They all acknowledge that the quality of task performance of drivers is dependent on their aspiration level, be it in terms of perceived risk, comfort, perceived task control, workload or whatever the construct may be, and that this aspiration level is under motivational control. Summala (1988) explicitly acknowledges the importance of “external motives” in determining the outcome of the monitoring system in his model.
Attitude theory incorporates these motivational aspects as attitudes are conceptualised as psychological tendencies to evaluate aspects positively or negatively including affect and mood. Motivational processes are considered crucial to attitude formation and change (see Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). The Theory of Reasoned Action and its successor, the Theory of Planned Behavior, have been used extensively to study road user behaviour (e.g. Parker, Manstead, Stradling & Reason, 1992) albeit mostly in relation to law violations such as speeding, drink-driving and seat belt use. More recently, these theories have been applied to study aggressive road user behaviour (e.g. Parker, Lajunen & Stradling, 1998). In these theories, the motivational processes are conceptualised as a product of the estimated likelihood of the outcome of behaviour and the evaluation of that outcome. Strong, consistent positive relationships between these “motives” and intentions to display specific behaviour have been established. However, three observations must be made. The first is that these relationships have been established between attitudes and intentions, or at best, between attitudes and reported behaviour. Studies that demonstrate relationships between attitudes and actual, observed road user behaviour are rare, and these studies usually measure attitudes after the behaviour is observed, hence their predictive value can be questioned. The second observation is that the results of attitude studies have not been integrated in performance-oriented models, even though there is theoretically every possibility to do so. Finally, if attitude studies have contributed to our understanding of the motives road users have to display deviant and dangerous behaviour, they have contributed very little to measure to remedy this behaviour. This is not due to attitude theory. In other areas of applied research based on attitude theory, interventions have been developed on the basis of attitude theory, as for example in smoking and other health-related behaviour. It is a major shortcoming that needs to be addressed.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Accident-prone drivers may not exist, or if they exist may not be found, (see Haight, this volume), but individual differences are a subject of substantial research. Sensation-seeking is consistently associated with risky driving (Jonah, 1997). Walton (1999) compared truck drivers’ self-assessment and assessment of others on measures such as speed, safety and consideration with the averages of independently-recorded objective indicators in attempt to determine the direction of bias. He found that drivers do not demonstrate ‘self-enhancement’ indicative of driver overconfidence and conclude that the self-enhancement bias found operates as a negative-other rationalisation. McKenna (1993) found illusion of control but not optimism bias to affect drivers’ expectancy of accident involvement. In addition to these and similar cognitive social psychology constructs, differences in accident involvement of younger versus older, female versus male, and experienced versus inexperienced drivers have attracted considerable research efforts. Groeger (2000) provides an overview of this research. It is clear that people differ in their cognitions regarding driving and differ in their driving style. How these differences determine accident-involvement is as yet largely unclear. Accident-prone driver remain elusive.
ACCIDENT-COUNTERMEASURES
The reason for carrying out applied research is not primarily to contribute to the scientific body of knowledge or to develop new models or theories; it is to contribute to solving the problem to which the research is applied. In this traffic psychology falls short. Risk theories have done little do reduce the risk of driving. Performance models may in other areas of task performance have had an impact on task design, not so in transportation. Road design still is primarily a task of road engineers, car design primarily a task of vehicle engineers. The traditional realm of traffic psychology – road safety campaigns, driver selection, training and rehabilitation – cannot claim an impressive impact on road safety.
There is one exception. The introduction of information technology in the transport system has created new opportunities for traffic psychology. In first instance, traffic psychology has concentrated on the question how the changes in task environment that resulted from the introduction of...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 8.9.2004 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Sachbuch/Ratgeber ► Beruf / Finanzen / Recht / Wirtschaft |
| Sachbuch/Ratgeber ► Gesundheit / Leben / Psychologie ► Lebenshilfe / Lebensführung | |
| Natur / Technik ► Fahrzeuge / Flugzeuge / Schiffe ► Auto / Motorrad | |
| Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Allgemeine Psychologie | |
| Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie | |
| Technik | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-08-047463-2 / 0080474632 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-047463-2 / 9780080474632 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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