Plasma Science and Technology (eBook)

Lectures in Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Engineering

ALEXANDER FRIDMAN (Autor)

eBook Download: PDF

2023
Wiley-VCH GmbH (Verlag)
9783527834129 (ISBN)

Infos

Plasma Science and Technology

An accessible introduction to the fundamentals of plasma science and its applications

In Plasma Science and Technology: Lectures in Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Engineering, distinguished researcher Dr. Alexander Fridman delivers a comprehensive introduction to plasma technology, including fulsome descriptions of the fundamentals of plasmas and discharges. The author discusses a wide variety of practical applications of the technology to medicine, energy, catalysis, coatings, and more, emphasizing engineering and science fundamentals.

Offering readers illuminating problems and concept questions to support understanding and self-study, the book also details organic and inorganic applications of plasma technologies, demonstrating its use in nature, in the lab, and in both novel and well-known applications. Readers will also find:

• A thorough introduction to the kinetics of excited atoms and molecules
• Comprehensive explorations of non-equilibrium atmospheric pressure cold discharges
• Practical discussions of plasma processing in microelectronics and other micro-technologies
• Expert treatments of plasma in environmental control technologies, including the cleaning of air, exhaust gases, water, and soil

Perfect for students of chemical engineering, physics, and chemistry, Plasma Science and Technology will also benefit professionals working in these fields who seek a contemporary refresher in the fundamentals of plasma science and its applications.

Alexander Fridman, PhD, is Nyheim Chair Professor and Director of the C&J Nyheim Plasma Institute of Drexel University, fellow of the US National Academy of Inventors. As one of the world's leading researchers in plasma science and engineering, he develops novel plasma approaches to material treatment, fuel conversion, hydrogen production, aerospace engineering, biology, medicine, environmental control, agriculture, and food processing.

Autor

Alexander Fridman is Nyheim Chair Professor, and director of the J.& C. Nyheim Plasma Institute of Drexel University, and one of the world leading scientists in plasma science and engineering. Prof. Fridman develops novel plasma approaches to material treatment, fuel conversion, hydrogen production, aerospace engineering, biology, environmental control, agriculture, and food processing. Significant and highly recognized contribution of Prof. Fridman and his group has been done in development of Plasma Medicine, which is a revolutionary breakthrough research focused on direct plasma interaction with living tissues, direct plasma application for wound treatment, skin sterilization, blood coagulation and treatment of different diseases, including cancer, not effectively treated before. Prof. Fridman is recognized today as one of the world pioneers of Plasma Medicine, and Founding President of the International Society of Plasma Medicine. Dr. Fridman worked and taught as a Professor in different National Laboratories and Universities of United States, France and Russia. He published 8 monograph books (with multiple editions), and more than thousand scientific papers (with total citation index about 35,000; h-index 81), organized and chaired several major international conferences. He is an author of more than 30 Patents. Dr. Fridman received numerous awards, including International Plasma Medicine Award, Stanley Kaplan Distinguished Professorship in Chemical Kinetics and Energy Systems, George Soros Distinguished Professorship in Physics, Chernobyl Nuclear Accident Medal, Dupont award, University of Illinois and Drexel University Research awards, Kurchatov Gold Medal for Scientific Achievements in Nuclear and Plasma Sciences. Dr. Fridman together with the Nobel Prize laureate N.G. Basov received the State Price of the USSR for discovery of selective stimulation of chemical processes in plasma. Recently, in 2019, Alexander Fridman received Reactive Plasma Award, the highest award of International Society for Reactive Plasmas, as well as very prestigious Plasma Chemistry Award.

Inhalt

Cover 1
Title Page 5
Copyright 6
Contents 9
Preface 33
Part I Plasma Fundamentals: Kinetics, Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Electrodynamics 35
Chapter 1 The Major Component of the Universe, the Cornerstone of Microelectronics, The High?Tech Magic Wand of Technology 37
1.1 The Forth State of Matter: Plasma in Nature, in Lab, in Technology 37
1.2 Multiple Plasma Temperatures, Plasma Nonequilibrium, Thermal and Nonthermal Plasmas 39
1.3 Plasma Sources: Nonthermal, Thermal, and Transitional “Warm” Discharges, Discharges in Gases and Liquids 40
1.4 Plasma Processes: Major Plasma Components, High Selectivity and Controllability of Nonequilibrium Reactions, “Multidisciplinarity Without Borders” 43
1.5 Plasma Technologies: The Cornerstone of Microelectronics, the Major Successes Stories 44
1.6 Electric Energy Consumption as a Challenge of Plasma Technologies, Plasma is the Future Because the Future is Electric 47
1.7 Plasma Today is a High?Tech Magic Wand of Modern Technology 48
Chapter 2 Elementary Processes of Charged Particles in Plasma 51
2.1 Elementary Charged Plasma Species and Their Transformation Pathways 51
2.2 Fundamental Characteristics and Parameters of Elementary Processes 52
2.3 Classification of Ionization Processes, Elastic Scattering and Energy Transfer in Coulomb Collisions 54
2.4 Direct Ionization of Atoms and Molecules by Electron Impact: Thomson Formula, Franck–Condon Principle 56
2.5 Stepwise Ionization by Electron Impact 57
2.6 Ionization by High?energy Electron Beams Photoionization
2.7 Ionization in Collisions of Heavy Particles: Adiabatic Principle, Massey Parameter, Penning Ionization 59
2.8 Losses of Charged Particles: Mechanisms of Electron–Ion Recombination 60
2.9 Electron Losses in Electronegative Gases, Electron Attachment Processes 62
2.10 Electron Detachment from Negative Ions 66
2.11 Losses of Charged Particles: Mechanisms of Ion–Ion Recombination 67
2.12 Ion?molecular Processes: Polarization Collisions, Langevin Capture 71
2.13 Resonant and Nonresonant Ion?atomic Charge Transfer Processes 72
2.14 Ion?molecular Reactions with Rearrangement of Chemical Bonds, Plasma Catalysis 74
2.15 Problems and Concept Questions 75
2.15.1 Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution Function 75
2.15.2 Positive and Negative Ions 75
2.15.3 Direct Ionization by Electron Impact 75
2.15.4 Stepwise Ionization 75
2.15.5 Electron Beam Propagation in Gases 75
2.15.6 Ionization in Ion?Neutral Collisions, Massey Parameter 75
2.15.7 Dissociative Electron–Ion Recombination 75
2.15.8 Dissociative Attachment 75
2.15.9 Detachment by Electron Impact 76
2.15.10 Langevin Capture Cross Section 76
2.15.11 Nonresonant Charge Exchange 76
Chapter 3 Elementary Processes of Excited Atoms and Molecules in Plasma 77
3.1 Vibrational Excitation of Molecules by Electron Impact 77
3.2 Rate Coefficients of Vibrational Excitation in Plasma, Fridman Approximation 78
3.3 Rotational Excitation of Molecules by Electron Impact 80
3.4 Electronic Excitation by Electron Impact: Metastable States, Dissociation of Molecules 81
3.5 Distribution of Electrons Energy in Nonthermal Discharges Between Different Channels of Excitation and Ionization 84
3.5.1 Elastic vs Inelastic Collisions 84
3.5.2 Exclusive Contribution of Discharge Energy to Vibrational Excitation 84
3.5.3 Effect of Superelastic Collisions on Contribution of Discharge Energy to Vibrational Excitation 85
3.5.4 Contribution of Electron Attachment, Electronic Excitation, and Ionization Processes 85
3.6 Vibrational?to?translational Energy Transfer Processes, VT?relaxation 86
3.6.1 Slow Adiabatic VT?relaxation of Harmonic Oscillators 86
3.6.2 VT?relaxation Rate Coefficients for Harmonic Oscillators, Landau–Teller Formula 87
3.6.3 VT?relaxation of Anharmonic Oscillators 88
3.6.4 Fast Nonadiabatic Mechanisms of VT?relaxation 89
3.7 Vibrational Energy Exchange Between Molecules, VV?relaxation 90
3.7.1 VV?relaxation Close to Resonant 90
3.7.2 VV?relaxation of Anharmonic Oscillators 92
3.7.3 Intermolecular VV??relaxation 92
3.8 VT? and VV?relaxation of Highly Vibrationally Excited Polyatomic Molecules 93
3.8.1 Shchuryak Model of Transition to the Vibrational Quasi?continuum 94
3.8.2 VT?relaxation of Polyatomic Molecules in Vibrational Quasi?continuum 94
3.8.3 VV?exchange of Polyatomic Molecules in Vibrational Quasi?continuum 95
3.9 Rotational Relaxation Processes, Parker Formula 96
3.10 Relaxation of Electronically Excited Atoms and Molecules 96
3.10.1 Relaxation of Electronic Excitation (ET Process) 96
3.10.2 The Electronic Excitation Energy Transfer Processes 97
3.11 Elementary Chemical Reactions of Excited Molecules 97
3.11.1 Arrhenius Formula for Excited Molecules 97
3.11.2 Activation Energy 98
3.12 Efficiency of Vibrational Energy in Overcoming Activation Energy of Chemical Reactions, Fridman–Macheret ??formula 98
3.12.1 Efficiency ? of Molecular Excitation Energy 98
3.12.2 Fridman–Macheret ??formula 98
3.12.3 Reactions Proceeding Through Intermediate Complexes 100
3.12.4 Chemical Reactions of Two Vibrationally Excited Molecules 101
3.13 Nonequilibrium Dissociation of Molecules with Essential Contribution of Vibrational and Translational Energy 101
3.14 Problems and Concept Questions 102
3.14.1 Multi?quantum Vibrational Excitation by Electron Impact 102
3.14.2 Influence of Vibrational Temperature on Electronic Excitation Rate Coefficients 102
3.14.3 Dissociation of Molecules Through Electronic Excitation by Direct Electron Impact 103
3.14.4 Distribution of Electron Energy Between Different Channels of Excitation and Ionization 103
3.14.5 VT?relaxation Rate Coefficient as a Function of Vibrational Quantum Number 103
3.14.6 The Resonant Multi?quantum VV?exchange 103
3.14.7 VV?relaxation of Polyatomic Molecules 103
3.14.8 Transition to the Vibrational Quasi?continuum 103
3.14.9 Rotational RT?relaxation 103
3.14.10 LeRoy Formula and ??model 103
3.14.11 Contribution of Translational Energy in Dissociation of Molecules Under Nonequilibrium Conditions 103
Chapter 4 Physical Kinetics and Transfer Processes of Charged Particles in Plasma 105
4.1 Boltzmann Kinetic Equation for Distribution Functions of Charged Particles: Vlasov Equation, Collisional Integral, Quasi?equilibrium Maxwellian EEDF 105
4.2 Microscopic Consequences of the Boltzmann Kinetic Equation: Continuity, Momentum, and Energy Conservation Equations 106
4.2.1 The Continuity Equation 106
4.2.2 The Momentum Conservation Equation 107
4.2.3 The Energy Conservation Equation 107
4.3 The Fokker–Planck Kinetic Equation for the Electron Energy Distribution Functions (EEDF) 108
4.4 Maxwellian, Druyvesteyn, and Margenau Electron Energy Distribution Functions 109
4.4.1 Maxwellian Distribution 109
4.4.2 Druyvesteyn Distribution 110
4.4.3 Margenau Distribution 110
4.5 Effect of Electron–molecular and Electron–electron Collisions on EEDF 110
4.6 Relations Between Electron Temperature Te and the Reduced Electric Field E/n0 112
4.7 Plasma Electron Conductivity: Isotropic and Anisotropic Parts of EEDF 112
4.8 Joule Heating and Electron Mobility, Similarity Parameters in Nonthermal Discharges 114
4.9 Plasma Conductivity in Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fields 115
4.10 Electric Conductivity of the Strongly Ionized Plasma 116
4.11 Ion Energy and Ion Drift in Electric Field 117
4.12 Free Diffusion of Electrons and Ions and Continuity Equation for Charged Particles Fick's Law and Einstein Relation Between Diffusion, Mobility, and Mean Energy
4.13 Ambipolar Diffusion, Debye Radius, and Definition of Plasma 118
4.14 Problems and Concept Questions 120
4.14.1 The Fokker–Planck Kinetic Equation 120
4.14.2 The Druyvesteyn Electron Energy Distribution Function 120
4.14.3 The Margenau EEDF 120
4.14.4 Effect of Vibrational Temperature on EEDF 120
4.14.5 Electron–Electron Collisions and EEDF Maxwellization 120
4.14.6 Similarity Parameters 120
4.14.7 Electron Drift in the Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fields 120
4.14.8 Plasma Rotation in the Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fields, Plasma Centrifuge 121
4.14.9 Ambipolar Diffusion 121
4.14.10 Debye Radius and Ambipolar Diffusion 121
Chapter 5 Physical and Chemical Kinetics of Excited Atoms and Molecules in Plasma 123
5.1 Excitation Energy Distribution in Nonequilibrium Plasma: Vibrational Kinetics, Fokker–Planck Kinetic Equation for Vibrational Distribution Functions 123
5.2 VT? and VV?fluxes of Excited Molecules in Energy Space 123
5.2.1 Energy?space?diffusion Related to VT?relaxation 123
5.2.2 Energy?space?diffusion Related to VV?exchange 124
5.2.3 The Linear VV?flux Component 125
5.2.4 The Nonlinear Flux Component 125
5.3 Nonequilibrium Vibrational Distribution Functions Dominated by VV?exchange, the Treanor Distribution 126
5.4 Vibrational Distributions at the Strong Excitation Regime Dominated by Nonlinear Resonant VV?exchange, the Hyperbolic Plateau Distribution 128
5.5 Steady?state Vibrational Distributions Controlled by Linear VV? and VT?relaxation Processes in Weak Excitation Regime, the Gordiets Distribution 129
5.6 Direct Effect of Vibrational Excitation by Electron Impact on the Nonequilibrium Vibrational Distribution Functions 130
5.7 Nonequilibrium Vibrational Distributions of Polyatomic Molecules 130
5.8 Macro?kinetics of Chemical Reactions of Vibrationally Excited Molecules 133
5.9 Macro?kinetics of Vibrational Energy Losses Due to VT? and VV?relaxation 134
5.10 Vibrational Kinetics in Gas Mixtures, Treanor Isotopic Effect 136
5.11 Physical Kinetics of Population of Electronically Excited States in Plasma 139
5.12 Physical Kinetics of the Rotationally Excited Molecules, Canonical Invariance 140
5.13 Nonequilibrium Translational Energy Distribution Functions, Effect of “Hot Atoms” 141
5.13.1 Effect of “Hot Atoms” in Fast VT?relaxation Processes 141
5.13.2 Diagnostics of Nonequilibrium Molecular Gases Based on the Effect of “Hot Atoms” in Fast VT?relaxation 142
5.13.3 Generation of “Hot Atoms” in Fast Chemical Reactions 142
5.14 Problems and Concept Questions 143
5.14.1 Diffusion of Molecules Along the Vibrational Energy Spectrum 143
5.14.2 Flux of Molecules and Flux of Quanta Along the Vibrational Energy Spectrum 143
5.14.3 Hyperbolic Plateau Distribution Function 143
5.14.4 eV?flux Along the Vibrational Energy Spectrum 143
5.14.5 Treanor Effect for Polyatomic Molecules 143
5.14.6 Treanor to Boltzmann Transition in Vibrational Distributions of Polyatomic Molecules 143
5.14.7 VV? and VT?losses of Vibrational Energy of Highly Excited Molecules 143
5.14.8 Treanor Formula for Isotopic Mixtures 143
5.14.9 Coefficient of Selectivity for Separation of Heavy Isotopes 143
5.14.10 “Hot Atoms” Generated in Fast VT?relaxation 144
Chapter 6 Plasma Statistics and Thermodynamics, Heat and Radiation Transfer Processes 145
6.1 Complete (CTE) and Local (LTE) Thermodynamic Equilibrium in Plasma, Boltzmann Quasi?equilibrium Statistical Distribution 145
6.2 Saha Ionization Equilibrium, Planck Formula, Stefan–Boltzmann Law, and Other Thermal?plasma?related Statistical Distributions 146
6.2.1 Saha Equation for Ionization Equilibrium in Thermal Plasma 146
6.2.2 Statistical Relations for Radiation: Planck Formula, Stefan–Boltzmann Law 147
6.2.3 Statistical Distribution of Diatomic Molecules Over Vibrational–Rotational States 147
6.2.4 Dissociation Equilibrium in Molecular Gases 148
6.3 Thermodynamic Functions in Quasi?equilibrium Thermal Plasma: Partition Functions, Internal Energy, Helmholtz Free Energy, Gibbs Energy, Debye Corrections 148
6.4 Nonequilibrium Statistics and Thermodynamics of Thermal and Nonthermal Plasma Systems 149
6.4.1 Two?Temperature Statistics and Thermodynamics 149
6.4.2 Strongly Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics of Plasma Gasification Single Excited State Approach
6.4.3 Nonequilibrium Two?Temperature Statistics of Vibrationally Excited Molecules, the Treanor Distribution 151
6.5 Thermal Conductivity in Quasi?equilibrium Plasma, Effect of Dissociation and Ionization on Plasma Heat Transfer 151
6.6 Nonequilibrium Effects in Thermal Conductivity 153
6.6.1 Fast Transfer of Vibrational Energy in Nonequilibrium Plasma (Tv?& gg
6.6.2 Effect of Nonresonant VV?Exchange Close to the Vibrational?Translational (VT) Equilibrium 154
6.6.3 Nonequilibrium Effects Related to Recombination and Specific Heat 154
6.7 Emission and Absorption of Continuous Spectrum Radiation in Plasma, Bremsstrahlung, and Radiative Electron–Ion Recombination Processes 154
6.8 Absorption of Continuous Spectrum Radiation in Plasma: the Kramers and Unsold?Kramers Formulas 156
6.9 Radiation Transfer in Plasma: Optically Thin and Optically Thick Systems, Plasma as a Gray Body 156
6.10 Spectral Line Radiation in Plasma: Intensity, Natural Width, and Profile of Spectral Lines 158
6.11 The Doppler, Pressure, and Stark Broadening of Spectral Lines 160
6.11.1 Doppler Broadening 160
6.11.2 Pressure Broadening 160
6.11.3 Stark Broadening 161
6.11.4 Convolution of Lorentzian and Gaussian Profiles, the Voigt Profile of Spectral Lines 162
6.12 Emission and Absorption of Radiation in Spectral Lines 162
6.12.1 Spectral Emissivity of a Line 162
6.12.2 Selective Absorption of Radiation in Spectral Lines 162
6.12.3 The Oscillator Power 163
6.13 Radiation Transfer in Spectral Lines 163
6.14 Inverse Population of Excited States in Nonequilibrium Plasmas and Principle of Laser Generation 164
6.15 Problems and Concept Questions 164
6.15.1 Average Vibrational Energy 164
6.15.2 Ionization Equilibrium, the Saha Equation 164
6.15.3 The Treanor Effect in Vibrational Energy Transfer 164
6.15.4 Vibrational?translational VT Nonequilibrium Caused by the Specific Heat Effect 164
6.15.5 Total Plasma Emission in Continuous Spectrum 165
6.15.6 Natural Profile of Spectral Lines 165
6.15.7 Doppler Broadening of Spectral Lines 165
6.15.8 Pressure Broadening of Spectral Lines 165
6.15.9 Absorption of Radiation in a Spectral Line by One Classical Oscillator 165
6.15.10 Inverse Population of Excited States and the Laser Amplification Coefficient 165
Chapter 7 Plasma Electrostatics and Electrodynamics, Waves in Plasma 167
7.1 Ideal and Nonideal Plasmas, Plasma Polarization and Debye Shielding of Electric Field 167
7.2 Quasi?neutral Plasma vs Sheath, Physics of DC Sheaths 168
7.3 Plasma Sheath Models: High Voltage Sheaths, Matrix, and Child Law Sheaths 170
7.4 Electrostatic Plasma Oscillations, Langmuir Frequency 171
7.5 Plasma Skin Effect, Penetration of Slow?changing Fields into Plasma 172
7.6 Electrostatic Plasma Waves and Their Collisional Damping 172
7.7 Ionic Sound in Plasma 173
7.8 Magnetohydrodynamic Waves: Alfven Velocity, Alfven Wave, Magnetic Sound 174
7.9 Collisionless Interaction of Electrostatic Plasma Waves with Electrons, the Landau Damping, the Beam, and Buneman Kinetic Instabilities 174
7.10 Dielectric Permittivity and Conductivity of Plasma in High?frequency Electric Fields 176
7.11 Propagation, Absorption, and Total Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasma: Bouguer Law and Critical Electron Density 177
7.12 Nonlinear Waves in Plasma: Modulation Instability, Lighthill Criterion, and Korteweg–de Vries Equation 179
7.13 Langmuir Solitons in Plasma 181
7.14 Nonlinear Ionic Sound, Evolution of Strongly Nonlinear Oscillations 182
7.15 Problems and Concept Questions 183
7.15.1 Ideal and Nonideal Plasmas 183
7.15.2 Charged Particles Inside Debye Sphere 183
7.15.3 Floating Potential 183
7.15.4 Matrix and Child Law Sheaths 183
7.15.5 Electrostatic Plasma Waves 183
7.15.6 Ionic Sound 184
7.15.7 Landau Damping 184
7.15.8 High?frequency Dielectric Permittivity of Plasma 184
7.15.9 Solitons as Solutions of the Korteweg–de Vries Equation 184
7.15.10 Nonlinear Ionic Sound 184
7.15.11 Velocity of the Nonlinear Ionic?sound Waves 184
7.15.12 The Ionic Sound Solitons 184
Chapter 8 Plasma Magneto?hydrodynamics, Fluid Mechanics and Acoustics 185
8.1 Plasma Magneto?hydrodynamics (MHD): Magnetic Field “Diffusion” in Plasma, Frozenness of Magnetic Field in Plasma 185
8.2 Plasma Equilibrium in Magnetic Field: Magnetic Pressure and Pinch Effect 186
8.3 Two?fluid Plasma MHD and the Generalized Ohm's Law 187
8.4 The Generalized Ohm's Law and Plasma Diffusion Across Magnetic Field 188
8.5 Magnetic Reynolds Number and Alfven Velocity: Conditions for Magneto?hydrodynamic (MHD) Behavior of Plasma 189
8.6 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Magnetized Plasma 190
8.7 Ordinary and Extra?ordinary Polarized Electromagnetic Waves in Magnetized Plasma, Effect of Ionic Motion 191
8.8 Dispersion and Amplification of Acoustic Waves in Nonequilibrium Plasma 192
8.8.1 Acoustic Waves in Molecular Gas at Equilibrium (Tv & equals
8.8.2 Acoustic Waves in Nonequilibrium (Tv?> ?T0) Plasma, High?frequency Limit
8.8.3 Acoustic Wave Dispersion in the Presence of Intensive Plasma?chemical Reaction 194
8.9 Evolution of Shock Waves in Plasma 195
8.10 Nonthermal Plasma Fluid Mechanics in Fast Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 196
8.11 Vibrational Relaxation in Fast Subsonic and Supersonic Flows of Nonthermal Reactive Plasmas 198
8.12 Spatial Nonuniformity and Space Structure of Unstable Vibrational Relaxation in Chemically Active Plasma 201
8.13 Elements of Plasma Aerodynamics: Plasma Interaction with Fast Flows and Shocks, Ionic Wind 203
8.14 Problems and Concept Questions 204
8.14.1 Magnetic Field Frozen in Plasma 204
8.14.2 Magnetic Pressure and Plasma Equilibrium in Magnetic Field 204
8.14.3 The Magnetic Reynolds Number 205
8.14.4 Critical Heat Release in Supersonic Flows 205
8.14.5 Electromagnetic Waves in Magnetized Plasma 205
8.14.6 Profiling of Nonthermal Discharges in Supersonic Flow 205
8.14.7 Dynamics of Vibrational Relaxation in Transonic Flows 205
8.14.8 Space?nonuniform Vibrational Relaxation 205
8.14.9 Comparison of Linear and Nonlinear Approaches to Evolution of Perturbations 205
8.14.10 Generation of Strong Shock Waves and Detonation Waves in Plasma 205
Part II Plasma Physics and Engineering of Electric Discharges 207
Chapter 9 Electric Breakdown, Steady?state Discharge Regimes, and Instabilities 209
9.1 Electric Breakdown of Gases, the Townsend Mechanism 209
9.2 The Paschen Curves: Critical Breakdown Conditions, Breakdown of Larger Gaps and Effect of Electronegative Gases 210
9.3 Spark Breakdown Mechanism, Physics of Avalanches and Streamers 213
9.4 Meek Criterion of the Avalanche?to?streamer Transition and Spark Breakdown, Streamer Propagation Models, Concept of Leaders in Very Long Gaps 216
9.5 Steady?state Regimes of Nonequilibrium Discharges Controlled by Volume Reactions of Charged Particles and Surface Recombination Processes 218
9.6 Steady?state Discharges Controlled by Volume Reactions of Charged Particles: Regimes Controlled by Electron–Ion Recombination, and by Electron Attachment 219
9.6.1 Regime Controlled by Electron–Ion Recombination 219
9.6.2 Discharge Regime Controlled by Electron Attachment 220
9.7 Steady?state Discharges Controlled by Diffusion of Charged Particles to the Walls with Following Surface Recombination: the Engel–Steenbeck Relation 220
9.8 Propagation of Nonthermal Discharges, Ionization Waves 221
9.9 Nonequilibrium Behavior of Electron Gas: Electron?neutrals Temperature Difference, Deviations from the Saha Ionization Degree 223
9.10 Instabilities of Nonthermal Plasmas: Striations and Contractions, Ionization?overheating Thermal Instability in Monatomic Gases 224
9.11 Ionization?overheating Thermal Instability in Molecular Gases with Significant Vibrational Excitation, Effect of Plasma?chemical Reactions 225
9.12 Electron Attachment Instability and Other Ionization Instabilities of Nonthermal Plasma 228
9.12.1 Attachment Instability 228
9.12.2 Ionization Instability Controlled by Dissociation of Molecules 229
9.12.3 The Stepwise Ionization Instability 229
9.12.4 Electron Maxwellization Instability 229
9.12.5 Instability in Fast Oscillating Fields 229
9.13 Problems and Concept Questions 229
9.13.1 Effect of Electron Attachment on Breakdown Conditions 229
9.13.2 Energy Input and Temperature in Streamers 229
9.13.3 Streamer Propagation Velocity 230
9.13.4 Attachment?controlled Discharge Regime 230
9.13.5 The Engel–Steenbeck Model 230
9.13.6 Ionization Wave Propagation 230
9.13.7 Thermal Instability in Monatomic Gases 230
9.13.8 Electron Attachment Instability 230
Chapter 10 Nonthermal Plasma Sources: Glow Discharges 231
10.1 Major Types of Electric Discharges, Glow Discharge as a Conventional Nonthermal Plasma Source 231
10.2 Plasma Parameters and Glow Pattern along the Glow Discharge 233
10.3 Current–Voltage Characteristics of DC?discharges: Transition from Townsend Dark Discharge to Glow Discharge 234
10.4 Cathode Layer of Glow Discharge, Engel–Steenbeck Model and Current–Voltage Characteristics 237
10.5 The Normal Regime of Glow Discharges, Steenbeck Minimum Power Principle for Normal Cathode Current Density 238
10.6 Abnormal, Subnormal, and Obstructed Glow Discharge Regimes the Hollow Cathode Discharge
10.7 About Anode Layer of Glow Discharges 241
10.8 Positive Column of Glow Discharges: Current–Voltage Characteristics and Heat Balance 242
10.9 Glow Discharge Instabilities: Contraction of the Positive Column 244
10.10 Glow Discharge Instabilities: The Striations 245
10.11 About Energy Efficiency of Plasma?chemical Processes in Glow Discharges, Approaches to Glow Discharge Stabilization, Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharges 247
10.12 Glow Discharges in Strong Magnetic Field: Penning Discharge, Plasma Centrifuge 248
10.13 Magnetron Glow Discharges, Magnetic Mirror Effect 250
10.14 Problems and Concept Questions 251
10.14.1 Space Charges in Cathode and Anode Layers 251
10.14.2 The Seeliger's Rule for Spectral Line Emission Sequence in Negative and Cathode Glows 251
10.14.3 Glow Discharge in Tubes of Complicated Shapes 251
10.14.4 Normal Cathode Potential Drop, Normal Current Density, and Normal Thickness of Cathode Layer 251
10.14.5 Glow Discharge with Hollow Cathode 252
10.14.6 Contraction of Glow Discharge in Fast Gas Flow 252
10.14.7 The Penning Discharge 252
10.14.8 The Alfven Velocity in Plasma Centrifuge 252
10.14.9 The Escape Cone Angle in Magnetic Mirror 252
10.14.10 Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharges 252
Chapter 11 Thermal Plasma Sources: Arc Discharges 253
11.1 Arc Discharge as a Conventional Thermal Plasma Source: Types of Arcs, Plasma Parameters 253
11.1.1 Hot Thermionic Cathode Arcs 253
11.1.2 Arcs with Hot Cathode Spots 253
11.1.3 Vacuum Arcs 254
11.1.4 High Pressure Arc Discharges 254
11.1.5 Low Pressure Arc Discharges 254
11.2 Electron Emission from Hot Cathode: Thermionic Emission, Sommerfeld formula, Schottky effect 254
11.3 Electron Emission from Cathode: Field, Thermionic Field, and Secondary Electron Emission Processes 257
11.4 Cathode Layer of Arc Discharges: Physics and General Features 258
11.5 Energy Balance of Cathode and Anode Layers: Electrode Erosion, Cathode Spots 261
11.6 Positive Column of Arc Discharges: Elenbaas–Heller Equation, Steenbeck and Raizer “Channel” Models 262
11.7 Plasma Temperature, Specific Power, Electric Field, and Radius of the Arc Positive Column 265
11.8 Arc Dynamics: Bennet Pinch, Electrode Jets 267
11.9 Engineering Configurations of Arc Discharges 268
11.10 Gliding Arcs: Physics of the Flat Discharge Configuration 270
11.11 Nonequilibrium Gliding Arcs, Fast Equilibrium?to?Nonequilibrium Transition 273
11.12 Gliding Arc Stabilized in Reverse Vortex (Tornado) Flow, and Other Special Gliding Arc Configurations 274
11.13 Problems and Concept Questions 277
11.13.1 The Sommerfeld Formula for Thermionic Emission 277
11.13.2 Secondary Electron Emission 277
11.13.3 Erosion of Hot Cathodes 277
11.13.4 Radiation of the Arc Positive Column 277
11.13.5 Arc Temperature in the Frameworks of the Channel Model 277
11.13.6 Difference between Electron and Gas Temperatures in Arc Discharges 277
11.13.7 Electrode Jet Velocity 277
11.13.8 Stabilization of Linear Arcs Near Axis of the Discharge Tube 277
11.13.9 Critical Length of Gliding Arc Discharge 277
11.13.10 Quasi?Unstable Phase of Gliding Arc Discharge 277
Chapter 12 Radio?frequency, Microwave, and Optical Discharges 279
12.1 Thermal Plasma Generation in High?frequency Electromagnetic Fields 279
12.2 Thermal Plasma of Inductively Coupled RF Discharges, Metallic Cylinder Model 280
12.3 Plasma Temperature and Power of the Thermal ICP Discharges 281
12.4 Specific Configurations of Atmospheric Pressure RF ICP and RF CCP Discharges 283
12.5 Microwave Sources of Thermal Plasma 284
12.6 Thermal Plasma Generation in Continuous Optical Discharges 287
12.7 Radio?frequency (RF) Sources of Nonequilibrium Plasma, Capacitively Coupled Plasma (CCP), and Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Discharges 288
12.8 Fundamentals of Nonthermal Capacitively Coupled Plasma (CCP) Discharges 289
12.9 Nonthermal RF Capacitively Coupled Plasma (CCP) Discharges of Moderate Pressure, ?? and ? discharge Regimes 292
12.10 Low?pressure Capacitively Coupled Plasma (CCP) RF discharges 295
12.11 Asymmetric and Magnetron RF CCP Discharges at Low Pressures 298
12.12 Nonthermal Radio?frequency (RF) Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Discharges 301
12.13 Planar Coil and Helical Resonator Configurations of the Low?pressure RF ICP discharges 302
12.14 Nonthermal Wave?heated Plasma Sources: Electron–cyclotron Resonance (ECR) Microwave Discharges 304
12.15 Helicon and Surface?wave High?density Plasma (HDP) Discharges 306
12.16 Problems and Concept Questions 308
12.16.1 Microwave Discharge in H01?mode of Rectangular Waveguide 308
12.16.2 Equivalent Circuit of RF CCP Discharge 308
12.16.3 Critical Current of the ????? Transition in moderate pressure CCP 308
12.16.4 Stochastic Heating Effect 308
12.16.5 Current Density Distribution in ICP Discharges 308
12.16.6 Equivalent Circuit of ICP Discharges 309
12.16.7 Plasma Density in ICP Discharges 309
12.16.8 ECR?microwave Absorption Zone 309
Chapter 13 Atmospheric Pressure Cold Plasma Discharges: Corona, Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD), Atmospheric Pressure Glow (APG), Plasma Jet 311
13.1 Physics of Continuous Corona Discharges 311
13.2 Continuous Corona: Current–Voltage Characteristics and Discharge Power 313
13.3 Pulsed Corona Discharges 314
13.4 Dielectric?barrier Discharges (DBD): General Features and Configurations, Filamentary DBD Mode 316
13.5 Nanosecond?pulsed Dielectric?barrier Discharges (DBD), Uniform DBD Mode 318
13.6 Time?evolution of the Short?pulsed DBD: Pulse Energy and Average Discharge Power, the “Maximum Power Principle” 321
13.7 Asymmetric, Packed?bed, Ferroelectric, and Other Dielectric?surface Discharges 323
13.8 Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharges (APG) 325
13.9 Noble?gas?based RF Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jets (APPJ) 326
13.10 Atmospheric Pressure DBD?based Helium Plasma Jets, Plasma Bullets 327
13.11 Problems and Concept Questions 328
13.11.1 Active Corona Volume 328
13.11.2 Power of Continuous Corona Discharges 329
13.11.3 Voltage Rise Rate in Pulse Corona Discharges 329
13.11.4 Maximum vs Minimum Power Principles in Theory of Plasma Discharges 329
13.11.5 Power Control of Nanosecond?pulsed Dielectric Barrier Discharges 329
13.11.6 Evolution of the DBD Surface “Pancakes” vs DBD Streamers 329
13.11.7 Atmospheric Pressure RF vs DBD Plasma Jets 329
13.11.8 Helium Plasma Jets 329
13.11.9 Power of the DBD Plasma Jets 329
Chapter 14 Nonequilibrium Transitional “Warm” Discharges: Nonthermal Gliding Arc, Moderate?pressure Microwave Discharge, Different Types of Sparks and Microdischarges 331
14.1 Nonthermal Gliding Arc as an Example of the Nonequilibrium Atmospheric Pressure Transitional “Warm” Plasma Sources 331
14.2 Nonequilibrium Transitional “Warm” Microwave Discharges of Moderate Pressures 331
14.3 Vibrational–Translation Nonequilibrium (?Tv?> ?T0?) in Transitional “Warm” Microwave Discharges of Moderate Pressures
14.4 Spark Discharges 337
14.5 Spark Discharge in Nature: Lightning 338
14.6 Pin?to?hole Discharge (PHD) 339
14.7 Microdischarges: Atmospheric?pressure Micro?glow Discharge, Micro?hollow?cathode Discharge 340
14.8 Other DC, kHz?frequency, RF, Microwave Microdischarges, and Their Arrays 342
14.9 Problems and Concept Questions 344
14.9.1 Transitional “Warm” Discharges 344
14.9.2 Combined Regime of Moderate Pressure Microwave Discharges 344
14.9.3 Pressure Dependence of Energy Efficiency of Microwave Discharges 344
14.9.4 Power and Flow Rate Scaling of Moderate Pressure Microwave Discharges 344
14.9.5 Velocity of the Back Ionization Wave 344
14.9.6 Negative Ions Attachment to Water Droplets, Charge Separation in Thundercloud 344
14.9.7 Propagation of Ball Lightning 344
14.9.8 Pin?to?hole (PHD) Plasma Source 344
14.9.9 Atmospheric?pressure Micro?glow Discharge 344
Chapter 15 Ionization and Discharges in Aerosols Dusty Plasma Physics
15.1 Photoionization of Aerosols in Monochromatic and Continuous Spectrum Radiation 345
15.2 Thermal Ionization of Aerosols: Einbinder Formula, Langmuir Relation 347
15.3 Electric Breakdown of Aerosols 348
15.3.1 Pulse Breakdown of Aerosols 349
15.3.2 Breakdown of Aerosols in High?frequency Electromagnetic Fields 350
15.3.3 Townsend Breakdown of Aerosols 350
15.3.4 Effect of Macro?particles on Vacuum Breakdown 350
15.4 Steady?state DC Discharges in Heterogeneous Medium 350
15.5 Dusty Plasma Structures: Coulomb Crystals and Phase Transitions 352
15.6 Oscillations and Waves in Dusty Plasmas, Ionic Sound, and Dust Sound 353
15.7 Electron Beam Plasmas: Generation, Propagation, Properties 354
15.7.1 Powerful Electron Beam in Low?pressure Gas 355
15.7.2 Low?current Electron Beam in Rarefied Gas 355
15.7.3 Moderate?current Electron Beam in a Moderate Pressure Gas 355
15.7.4 High Power Electron Beam in a High?pressure Gas 355
15.8 Kinetics of Electron Beam Degradation Processes, Degradation Spectrum 356
15.9 Plasma?beam Discharge, Plasma?beam Centrifuge 358
15.10 Non?self?sustained High?pressure Cold Discharges Supported by High?energy Electron Beams 359
15.11 Plasma in Tracks of Nuclear Fission Fragments, Plasma Radiolysis 360
15.12 G?Factors, Plasma?radiolytic Effects in Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide 362
15.13 Dusty Plasma Generation by Relativistic Electrons, Radioactive Dusty Plasma 362
15.14 Problems and Concept Questions 363
15.14.1 Electron Density Due to Monochromatic Photoionization of Aerosols 363
15.14.2 Thermal Ionization of Aerosols 363
15.14.3 “Melting” of Coulomb Crystals 363
15.14.4 Ionization Energy Cost Due to Irradiation by High?energy Electrons 363
15.14.5 Degradation Spectrum vs EEDF 364
15.14.6 Energy Cost of Ionization and Excitation by Electron Beams 364
15.14.7 Initial Tracks of Nuclear Fission Fragments 364
15.14.8 Plasma Radiolysis of Carbon Dioxide 364
Chapter 16 Electric Discharges in Water and Other Liquids 365
16.1 Plasma Generation in Liquid Phase 365
16.2 Major Conventional Breakdown Mechanisms and Discharge Characteristics in Water 366
16.3 Nonequilibrium Nanosecond?pulsed Plasma in Water Without Bubbles 367
16.4 Nonequilibrium Nanosecond?pulsed Plasma Without Bubbles in Different Liquids: Comparison of Discharges in Water and PDMS 368
16.5 Characterization of the Nano?second Pulsed Discharges in Liquid: Shadow Imaging, Optical Emission Spectroscopy 371
16.6 Streamer Formation in Liquids and Nonequilibrium Nanosecond?pulsed Liquid Plasma Without Bubbles 372
16.7 Cryogenic Liquid Plasma, Nanosecond?pulsed Discharge in Liquid Nitrogen 373
16.8 Plasmas in Supercritical Fluids, Electric Breakdown of Supercritical CO2 375
16.9 Problems and Concept Questions 376
16.9.1 Effect of Electric Conductivity on Breakdown of Water 376
16.9.2 Increment of the Thermal Breakdown Instability for Electric Breakdown of Water 376
16.9.3 Breakdown Voltage of Water 376
16.9.4 Generation of Nano?plasma by Nano?corona 376
16.9.5 Comparison of Negative and Positive Pulsed Corona Discharges in Liquids Without Bubbles 376
16.9.6 The Dark Phase Effect During Evolution of the Nano?second Pulsed Discharge in Liquids 376
16.9.7 Modified Meek's Criterion for Breakdown of Liquids 376
16.9.8 Nanosecond?pulsed Discharge in Liquid N2, Synthesis of Polymeric Nitrogen 376
16.9.9 Breakdown of Supercritical Fluids 376
Part III Plasma in Inorganic Material Treatment, Energy Systems, and Environmental Control 377
Chapter 17 Energy Balance and Energy Efficiency of Plasma?chemical Processes, Plasma Dissociation of CO2 379
17.1 Energy Efficiency as a Key Requirement of Large?scale Plasma Processes: Comparison of Quasi?equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Plasmas 379
17.2 Energy Efficiency of Chemical Processes Stimulated in Plasma by Vibrational Excitation of Molecules, Electronic Excitation, and Dissociative Attachment 380
17.3 Energy Balance and Energy Efficiency of Plasma Processes Stimulated by Vibrational Excitation Excitation, Relaxation, and Chemical Components of Total Energy Efficiency
17.4 Energy Efficiency of Quasi?equilibrium Chemical Processes in Thermal Plasmas: Absolute, Ideal, and Surer?ideal Quenching of Products 382
17.5 Mass and Energy Transfer in Multi?component Thermal Plasmas, and its Effect on Energy Efficiency of Quasi?equilibrium Plasma?chemical Processes 385
17.6 CO2 Dissociation in Plasma: Crucial Fundamental and Applied Aspects of the Process in Thermal, Nonthermal, and Transitional Discharges 387
17.7 About Mechanisms of CO2 Dissociation in Plasma 389
17.8 Physical Kinetics of CO2 Dissociation in Nonthermal Plasma Stimulated by Vibrational Excitation of the Molecules 391
17.9 Vibrational Kinetics and Energy Balance in Nonequilibrium CO2 Plasma 393
17.10 CO2 Dissociation in Supersonic Cold Plasma Flows 394
17.11 Gas?dynamic Stimulation of CO2 Dissociation in Supersonic Flow Without Plasma, “Plasma Chemistry Without Electricity” 396
17.12 Complete Plasma Dissociation of CO2 to Carbon and Oxygen 397
17.13 Problems and Concept Questions 398
17.13.1 Energy Efficiency of Quasi?equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Plasma Processes 398
17.13.2 Plasma?chemical Processes Stimulated by Vibrational Excitation 398
17.13.3 Absolute and Ideal Quenching of Products in Thermal Plasma 398
17.13.4 Super?ideal Quenching due to Vibrational–Translational Nonequilibrium 399
17.13.5 Super?ideal Quenching Effects Related to Selectivity of Transfer Processes 399
17.13.6 CO2 Dissociation Through Electronic Excitation of Molecules in Cold Plasma 399
17.13.7 Transition of Highly Vibrationally Excited CO2 Molecules into Vibrational Quasi?continuum 399
17.13.8 One?vibrational?temperature Approximation of CO2 Dissociation Kinetics 399
17.13.9 Plasma?stimulated Disproportioning of CO, and Complete Dissociation of CO2 with Production of Elementary Carbon 399
Chapter 18 Synthesis of Nitrogen Oxides, Ozone, and Other Gas?phase Plasma Synthetic and Decomposition Processes 401
18.1 Plasma?chemical Synthesis of Nitrogen Oxides from Air: Fundamental and Applied Aspects of the Process in Thermal and Nonthermal Discharges 401
18.2 Mechanisms and Energy Efficiencies of NO Synthesis from Air in Nonthermal and Thermal Plasmas, the Zeldovich Mechanism 402
18.3 Elementary Zeldovich Reaction of NO Synthesis Stimulated by Vibrational Excitation of Nitrogen Molecules 403
18.4 Kinetics and Energy Balance of Plasma?chemical NO Synthesis in O2–N2 Mixtures Stimulated by Vibrational Excitation 406
18.5 Stability of Products of Plasma?chemical NO Synthesis to Reverse Reactions, Effect of “Hot” Nitrogen Atoms and Surface Stabilization 407
18.6 Plasma?chemical Synthesis of Ozone: Fundamental and Applied Aspects of the Process 408
18.7 Plasma?chemical Ozone Generation in Oxygen 409
18.8 Plasma?chemical Ozone Generation in Air 410
18.9 Stability of Plasma?generated Ozone: Negative Effects of Temperature, Water Vapor, Hydrogen, Hydrocarbons, and Other Admixtures 411
18.10 Major Specific Configurations of Plasma Ozone Generators 413
18.11 Ozone Generation in Pulsed Corona Discharges, Energy Efficiency of the Process 413
18.12 Plasma Synthesis of KrF2 and Other Fluorine?based Compounds of Noble Gases 415
18.13 Plasma F2 Dissociation and Synthesis of Aggressive Fluorine?based Oxidizers 417
18.14 Plasma?chemical Synthesis of Hydrazine (N2H4) and Ammonia (NH3) 418
18.15 Plasma?chemical Synthesis of Polyphosphoric Nitrides (P6N6), Polymeric Nitrogen, Cyanides, and Some Other Inorganic Compounds 419
18.16 Gas?phase Plasma Decomposition of Inorganic Triatomic Molecules NH3, SO2, N2O 420
18.17 Dissociation of Hydrogen Halides, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Other Diatomic Molecules in Thermal and Nonthermal Plasmas 421
18.18 Problems and Concept Questions 422
18.18.1 Rate Coefficient of Reaction O?+?N2???NO?+?N Stimulated by Vibrational Excitation 422
18.18.2 Energy Efficiency of NO Synthesis in Plasma 423
18.18.3 Conversion Degree Limitations of NO Synthesis in Plasma 423
18.18.4 Discharge Poisoning Effect During Ozone Synthesis 423
18.18.5 Temperature Effect on Ozone Stability 423
18.18.6 Negative Effect of Humidity on Ozone Generation in DBD 423
18.18.7 Positive Effect of N2 and CO Admixtures to Oxygen on Plasma?chemical Ozone Synthesis 423
18.18.8 Plasma?chemical KrF2 Synthesis with Product Stabilization in a Krypton Matrix 423
18.18.9 Plasma Synthesis of NH3 and N2H4 423
Chapter 19 Plasma Metallurgy: Production and Processing of Metals and their Compounds 425
19.1 Hydrogen?based Reduction of Iron Ore in Thermal Plasma: Using Hydrogen and Hydrocarbons, Plasma?chemical Steel Manufacturing 425
19.2 Hydrogen?based Reduction of Refractory Metal Oxides in Thermal Plasma, Plasma Metallurgy of Tungsten and Molybdenum 426
19.3 Thermal Plasma Reduction of Oxides of Aluminum and Other Inorganic Elements 427
19.4 Reduction of Metal Oxides Using Nonthermal Hydrogen Plasma, Nonequilibrium Plasma Effect of Surface Heating and Evaporation 428
19.5 Thermal Plasma Production of Metals by Carbothermic Reduction of Their Oxides: Pure Metallic Uranium, Niobium, Iron, Refractory, and Rare Metals 430
19.6 Direct Decomposition of Oxides to High?purity Elements in Thermal Plasma: Production of Aluminum, Vanadium, Indium, Germanium, and Silicon 431
19.7 Hydrogen?plasma Reduction of Metals, Metalloids, and Other Elements from Their Halides: Production of Boron, Niobium, Uranium, etc. 434
19.8 Direct Thermal Plasma Decomposition of Uranium Hexafluoride and Other Halides 436
19.9 Direct Decomposition of Halides and Reduction of Metals in Nonthermal Plasma 436
19.10 Synthesis of Nitrides and Carbides of Inorganic Materials in Thermal Plasmas 437
19.11 Plasma?chemical Production of Inorganic Oxides by Thermal Decomposition of Minerals, Aqueous Solutions, and Conversion Processes 438
19.12 Production of Inorganic Oxides by Conversion of Relevant Halides with Water or Oxygen in Thermal Plasma 440
19.13 Plasma?chemical Synthesis of Hydrides, Borides, and Carbonyls of Inorganic Materials 440
19.14 Plasma?metallurgical High?temperature Material Processing Technologies: Plasma Cutting, Plasma Welding, and Plasma Melting 442
19.15 Plasma Powder Metallurgy: Plasma Spheroidization and Densification of Powders 443
19.16 Problems and Concept Questions 444
19.16.1 Plasma Reduction of Metal Oxides with Hydrogen 444
19.16.2 Depth of Metal Oxide Reduction Layer in Nonthermal Hydrogen Plasma 444
19.16.3 Nonequilibrium Surface Heating in Plasma Treatment of Thin Layers 444
19.16.4 Application of Arcs vs. RF?ICP Discharges in Plasma Metallurgy 444
19.16.5 Halides in Plasma Metallurgy 444
19.16.6 Quenching Rate for Direct Plasma Reduction of Metallic Uranium from UF6 444
19.16.7 Decomposition of Titanium Tetrachloride TiCl4 to Metallic Titanium in Nonthermal Plasmas 444
19.16.8 Production of Uranium Oxides by Decomposition of the Uranyl Nitrate [UO2(NO3)2] Aqueous Solutions 444
Chapter 20 Plasma Powders, Micro? and Nano?technologies: Plasma Spraying, Deposition, Coating, Dusty Plasma?chemistry 445
20.1 Plasma Spraying of Powders as One of the Key Thermal Spray Technologies 445
20.2 DC?Arc Plasma Spray: Air Plasma Spray, VPS, LPPS, CAPS, SPS, UPS, and Other Specific Plasma Spray Approaches 445
20.3 Radio Frequency (RF) Thermal Plasma Sprays 447
20.4 Thermal Plasma Spraying of Monolithic Materials 447
20.5 Thermal Plasma Spraying of Composite Materials 448
20.6 Thermal Plasma Spraying of Functionally Gradient Materials (FGMs), Reactive Plasma Spray Forming 450
20.7 Microarc (Electrolytic Spark) Oxidation Coating: Aluminum Coating in Sulfuric Acid 451
20.8 Plasma Chemistry of the Microarc Oxidative Coating of Aluminum in Concentrated Sulfuric Acid Electrolyte 452
20.9 Direct Micro?patterning, Micro?fabrication, Micro?deposition, Micro?etching, and Surface Modification in Atmospheric Pressure Nonequilibrium Plasma Microdischarges 454
20.10 Nanoparticles in Cold Plasma, Physics and Kinetics of Dusty Plasma in Low?pressure RF Silane Discharges 456
20.11 Physical and Chemical Kinetics of Dust Nanoparticles Formation in Plasma: A Story of “Birth and Catastrophic Life” 457
20.12 Plasma Synthesis of Aluminum Nano?powders, Luminescent Silicon Quantum Dots, and Nano?composite Particles 459
20.13 Plasma Synthesis of Highly Organized Carbon Nanostructures: Plasma Synthesis of Fullerenes 459
20.14 Plasma Nanotechnology: Synthesis of Nanotubes, and Nanotube Surface Modification 461
20.15 Problems and Concept Questions 463
20.15.1 Thermal Plasma Spraying of Powders 463
20.15.2 Underwater Thermal Plasma Spraying (UPS) 463
20.15.3 Radio Frequency (RF) Thermal Plasma Sprays 463
20.15.4 Microarc (Electrolytic Spark) Oxidation Coating 463
20.15.5 Trapping of Neutral Nanoparticles in Low?pressure Silane Plasma 463
20.15.6 The ?–? Transition During Coagulation of Nanoparticles in Silane Plasma 463
20.15.7 Plasma Synthesis of Nano?powders 463
Chapter 21 Plasma Processing in Microelectronics and Other Micro?technologies: Etching, Deposition, and Ion Implantation Processes 465
21.1 Plasma Etching as a Part of Integrated Circuit Fabrication: Etch Rate, Anisotropy, and Selectivity Requirements 465
21.2 Basic Plasma Etch Processes: Sputtering, Pure Chemical Etching, Ion?energy Driven Etching, Ion?enhanced Inhibitor Etching 467
21.3 Plasma Sources Applied for Etching and Other Material Processing: RF?CCP Discharges, RF?Diodes and Triodes, MERIE, Reactive Ion Etchers (RIE), High?density Plasma (HDP) Sources 468
21.4 Kinetics of Etch Processes and Discharges: Surface Kinetics of Etching, Densities, and Fluxes of Ions and Neutral Etchants 469
21.5 Gas?phase Composition in Plasma Etching, Etchants?to?unsaturates Flux Ratio 471
21.6 Atomic Fluorine and Chlorine?based Plasma Etching of Silicon, Flamm Formulas, and Doping Effect 472
21.7 Plasma Etching of Silicon in CF4 Discharges: Competition Between Etching and Carbon Deposition 472
21.8 Plasma Etching of Silicon Oxide (SiO2) and Nitride (Si3N4), Aluminum, Photoresists, and Other Materials 473
21.9 Plasma Cleaning of Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) and Etching Reactors, In?situ Cleaning in Micro?electronics, and Other Active and Passive Cleaning Processes 474
21.10 Remote Plasma Cleaning in Microelectronics, Choice of Cleaning Feedstock Gases 475
21.11 Plasma?enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD), Amorphous Si?film Deposition 476
21.12 PECVD of Silicon Oxide (SiO2) and Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) Films, Conformal and Non?conformal Deposition in Trenches, Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) 480
21.13 Sputter Deposition Processes: Physical and Reactive Sputtering 481
21.14 Ion Implantation Processes, Ion?beam Implantation 482
21.15 Plasma?immersion Ion Implantation (PIII) 483
21.16 Problems and Concept Questions 486
21.16.1 Anisotropy Requirements for Plasma Etching 486
21.16.2 Sputtering 486
21.16.3 Etching Anisotropy Analysis in the Framework of Surface Kinetics of Plasma Etching 486
21.16.4 Etching Anisotropy as a Function of Discharge Power 486
21.16.5 Flamm Formulas for F?atom Silicon Etching 486
21.16.6 Competition Between Silicon Etching and Carbon Film Deposition in CF4 Discharges 486
21.16.7 Rate of Amorphous Silicon Film Deposition in Silane (SiH4) Discharges 486
21.16.8 Non?conformal Deposition of SiO2 Within Trenches During PECVD Process in SiH4–O2 Mixture 486
21.16.9 Conformal and Non?conformal Deposition in Trenches 487
21.16.10 Plasma?assisted Atomic Layer Deposition (PA?ALD) 487
Chapter 22 Plasma Fuel Conversion and Hydrogen Production, Plasma Catalysis 489
22.1 Plasma?assisted Production of Hydrogen from Gaseous Hydrocarbons: Partial Oxidation, Water?vapor Conversion, Dry (CO2) Reforming, Direct Pyrolysis, Two Concepts of Plasma Catalysis 489
22.2 Plasma?catalytic Syngas Production from Methane and Other Gaseous Hydrocarbons by Partial Oxidation in Nonthermal “Tornado” Gliding Arcs and Other Discharges 490
22.3 Plasma?catalytic Syngas Production in Mixtures of CH4/H2O (Steam Reforming) and CH4/H2O (Dry Reforming) 492
22.4 Direct Decomposition (Pyrolysis) of Methane and Other Gaseous Hydrocarbons, Plasma?catalytic Effects in the Pyrolysis, the Winchester Mechanism 493
22.5 Plasma Partial Oxidation and Steam?reforming of Liquid Fuels: On?board Generation of Hydrogen?rich Gases, Reforming of Kerosene, Ethanol, Aviation and Diesel Fuels, Gasoline, Renewable Biomass, Waste?to?energy Processes 495
22.6 Combination of Plasma and Catalysis in Hydrogen Production from Hydrocarbons: Plasma Pre?processing and Post?processing, Plasma Treatment of Catalysts 496
22.7 Plasma?chemical Conversion of Coal, Plasma Coal Pyrolysis, Coal Conversion in Thermal Plasma Jets 497
22.8 Thermal Plasma Jet Pyrolysis of Coal in Relatively Inert Gases (Ar, N2, H2): Production of Acetylene (C2H2), Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN), Transformation of Sulfur? and Nitrogen?compounds of Coal 498
22.9 Coal Gasification Using Thermal Plasma Discharges: Partial Oxidation, Steam, and Dry Reforming Processes 500
22.10 Energy and Hydrogen Production from Hydrocarbons with Carbon Bonding in Solid Suboxides without CO2 Emission 501
22.11 Plasma?chemical Conversion of Coal and Methane into Suboxides for Production of Hydrogen and Energy without CO2 Emission 502
22.12 Plasma?assisted Liquefaction of Natural Gas, Direct CH4 Incorporation into Nonsaturated Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels 503
22.13 H2S Decomposition in Plasma with Production of Hydrogen and Elemental Sulfur: Fundamental and Technological Aspects, Energy Efficiency in Different Plasma Systems 504
22.14 Nonequilibrium Kinetics of H2S Decomposition in Plasma: Nonequilibrium Clusterization in Centrifugal Field, Effect of Additives 506
22.15 Dissociation of Water Vapor and Direct H2 Production in Plasma: Fundamental and Applied Aspects, Mechanisms and Energy Efficiency of the Process 509
22.16 Hydrogen Production from Water in Double?step Plasma?chemical Cycles, Plasma Chemistry of CO2–H2O Mixture 510
22.17 Problems and Concept Questions 512
22.17.1 Plasma Catalysis of Hydrogen Production by Direct Decomposition (Pyrolysis) of Ethane 512
22.17.2 Plasma?stimulated Partial Oxidation of Liquid Fuel into Syngas (CO–H2) 512
22.17.3 Gasification of Coal by Water Vapor in Thermal Plasma Jet 512
22.17.4 Plasma Conversion of Coal into Carbon Suboxides without CO2 Emission 513
22.17.5 Plasma Dissociation of H2S with production of Hydrogen and Elemental Sulfur 513
22.17.6 Reverse Reactions and Explosion of Products of Plasma Dissociation of Water Vapor 513
22.17.7 Contribution of Dissociative Attachment to H2O Dissociation in Nonthermal Plasma 513
22.17.8 H2O Dissociation in Nonequilibrium Supersonic Plasma with Formation of H2 and Stabilization of Peroxide in Products 513
Chapter 23 Plasma Energy Systems: Ignition and Combustion, Thrusters, High?speed Aerodynamics, Power Electronics, Lasers, and Light Sources 515
23.1 Plasma?assisted Ignition and Stabilization of Flames: Ignition of Fast Transonic and Supersonic Flows, Sustaining Stable Combustion in Low?speed Flows 515
23.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics of Nonequilibrium Plasma?stimulated Combustion, Ignition Below the Auto?ignition Limit 517
23.3 Subthreshold Plasma Ignition, Kinetics of Plasma “Ignition Below the Auto?ignition Limit” 518
23.3.1 Subthreshold Plasma Ignition Initiated Thermally: the “Bootstrap” Effect 518
23.3.2 Subthreshold Ignition Initiated by Plasma?generated Excited Species 519
23.3.3 Subthreshold Ignition Initiated by Plasma?generated Neutrals like NO and CH2O 519
23.3.4 Contribution of Ions to the Subthreshold Ignition 520
23.4 Plasma?assisted Ignition and Combustion in Ram/Scram Jet Engines, Energy Efficiency of Transonic and Supersonic Ignition 520
23.5 Plasma Ignition and Stabilization of Combustion of Pulverized Coal: Application for Boiler Furnaces 521
23.6 Ion and Plasma Thrusters: Electric Propulsion, Specific Impulse of Electric Rocket Engines 521
23.7 Electric Rocket Engines Based on Ion and Plasma Thrusters: Operation of Ion Thrusters, Ion Acceleration Mechanisms, Classification of Major Plasma Thrusters 523
23.8 Electrothermal, Electrostatic, Magneto?plasma?dynamic, and Pulsed Plasma Thrusters 524
23.9 Plasma Aerodynamics, Plasma Interaction with High?Speed Flows and Shocks 525
23.10 Plasma Effects on Boundary Layers, Aerodynamic Plasma Actuators, Plasma Flow Control 527
23.11 Plasma Power Electronics: Magneto?hydrodynamic (MHD) Generators, Plasma Thermionic Converters 528
23.12 Gas?discharge Communication and Special Devices, Plasma Metamaterials 530
23.13 Plasma in Lasers: Classification of Lasers, Inversion Mechanisms, Lasers on Self?limited Transitions, Ionic Gas?discharge Ar and He–Ne Lasers 531
23.14 Plasma Lasers: Inversion in Plasma Recombination, He–Cd, Penning, and Other Lasers 532
23.15 Molecular Lasers on Vibrational?rotational Transitions, CO2, and CO Lasers, Excimer Lasers, Chemical Lasers 533
23.16 Plasma Sources of Radiation with High Spectral Brightness, Plasma Lighting: Mercury?containing and Mercury?free Lamps 534
23.17 Plasma Display Panels and Plasma TV 536
23.18 Problems and Concept Questions 537
23.18.1 Radical?thermal “Bootstrap” Effect in the Subthreshold Plasma?ignition of Hydrogen 537
23.18.2 Contribution of Vibrationally and Electronically Excited Molecules into Plasma Stimulated Ignition of H2–Air Mixtures 537
23.18.3 Energy Requirements for Plasma Ignition in Ram/Scramjet Engines 537
23.18.4 The Electric Propulsion Systems Decrease the Required Mass of the Spacecraft 537
23.18.5 Optimal Specific Impulse of Electric Propulsion Systems (Ion and Plasma Thrusters) 537
23.18.6 Optimal Specific Impulse Dependence on the Trust 537
23.18.7 Plasma Aerodynamics 537
23.18.8 Plasma as a Metamaterial 537
Chapter 24 Plasma in Environmental Control: Cleaning of Air, Exhaust Gases, Water, and Soil 539
24.1 Exhaust Gas Cleaning from SO2: Fundamental and Applied Aspects, Application of Relativistic Electron Beams and Coronas 539
24.2 Kinetics and Energy Balance of Plasma?catalytic Ion?molecular Chain Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 in Airflow 540
24.3 Plasma?stimulated Combined Oxidation of NOx and SO2 in Air: Simultaneous Industrial Exhaust Gas Cleaning from Nitrogen and Sulfur Oxides 541
24.4 Plasma?assisted After?treatment of Automotive Exhaust, Double?stage Plasma?catalytic NOx, and Hydrocarbon Remediation 541
24.5 Nonthermal Plasma Abatement of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) in Air, Plasma Cleaning of Emission from Paper Mills and Wood Processing Plants 543
24.6 Nonthermal Plasma Air Cleaning from Acetone, Methanol, Dimethyl Sulfide (DMS), ??Pinene, and Chlorine?containing VOC 544
24.7 Treatment of Large?scale Exhaust Gases from Paper Mill and Wood Processing Plants by Wet Pulsed Corona: Combination of Plasma VOC Cleaning with Wet Scrubbing 545
24.8 Nonthermal Plasma Removal of Elemental Mercury from Coal?fired Power Plant Emissions, and Other Industrial Off?gases 546
24.9 Plasma Decomposition of Freons (Chlorofluorocarbons) and Other Gaseous Waste Treatment Processes in Thermal and Transitional “Warm” Discharges 548
24.10 Plasma Decontamination of Water: Fundamental and Applied Aspects, Suppression of Hazardous Organic Compounds, Challenges of Energy Cost 549
24.11 Plasma?induced Water Softening, Mechanisms of Removal of Hydrocarbonates from Water 550
24.12 Plasma?induced Cleaning of Produced and Flowback Fracking Water 551
24.13 Plasma Water Cleaning from PFOS/PFOA and Other Perfluoro?alkyl?substances (PFAS, the “Forever Chemicals”) 552
24.14 Plasma Chemistry of PFAS Mineralization in Water: Mechanisms and Energy Balance 553
24.15 Plasma Environmental Cleaning of Soil: Destruction of PFAS Compounds, Vitrification of Contaminated Radioactive Soil, and Other Related Solid Waste Treatment Technologies 555
24.16 Problems and Concept Questions 555
24.16.1 Application of Relativistic Electron Beams in Exhaust Gas Cleaning 555
24.16.2 Plasma?catalytic Ion?molecular Chain Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 in Airflow 555
24.16.3 Plasma?stimulated Combined Oxidation of NOx and SO2 in Air 555
24.16.4 VOC Removal from Exhaust Gases Using Wet Pulsed Corona Discharge 556
24.16.5 Plasma?induced Mechanisms of Destruction of the Organic Compounds in Water 556
24.16.6 Plasma?induced Water Softening, Removal of Hydrocarbonates from Water 556
24.16.7 Plasma Chemistry of PFAS Mineralization in Water 556
24.16.8 Plasma Environmental Cleaning of PFAS Contaminated Soil 556
Part IV Organic and Polymer Plasma Chemistry, Plasma Medicine, and Agriculture 557
Chapter 25 Organic Plasma Chemistry: Synthesis and Conversion of Organic Materials and Their Compounds, Synthesis of Diamonds and Diamond Films 559
25.1 Thermal Plasma Pyrolysis of Methane: The Kassel Mechanism, the Westinghouse Process, Co?production of Acetylene and Ethylene 559
25.2 Thermal Plasma Pyrolysis of Higher Hydrocarbons 560
25.3 Technologies Based on Thermal Plasma Pyrolysis of Hydrocarbons: Production of Vinyl Chloride and Production of Acetylene by Carbon Reactions with Hydrogen and Natural Gas 561
25.4 Thermal Plasma Technology of Pyrolysis of Hydrocarbons with Production of Soot and Hydrogen 563
25.5 Nonthermal Plasma Conversion of Methane into Acetylene: Contribution of Vibrational Excitation, Energy Efficiency of the Process 563
25.6 Other Processes of Decomposition, Elimination, and Isomerization of Hydrocarbons in the Nonequilibrium Plasma Chemistry 564
25.7 Thermal Plasma Synthesis and Conversion of Nitrogen?organic Compounds: Production of C2N2 from Carbon and Nitrogen Co?production of HCN and C2H2 from Methane and Nitrogen
25.8 Nonthermal Plasma Production of Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) from Methane and Nitrogen 565
25.9 Other Thermal and Nonthermal Plasma Processes of Synthesis and Conversion of the Organic Nitrogen Compounds 566
25.10 Organic Plasma Chemistry of Chlorine Compounds 568
25.11 Organic Plasma Chemistry of Fluorine Compounds 569
25.12 Thermal and Nonthermal Plasma Processing of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 570
25.13 Direct Plasma Synthesis of Methanol and Formaldehyde by Oxidation of Methane 571
25.14 Nonthermal Plasma Synthesis of Aldehydes, Alcohols, Organic Acids, and Other Organic Compounds in Mixtures of Carbon Oxides with Hydrogen and Water 572
25.15 Plasma?chemical Synthesis of Diamonds and Diamond Films 573
25.16 Mechanisms of Major Plasma?volume and Surface Processes Leading to the Plasma?chemical Diamond?film Growth 575
25.17 Problems and Concept Questions 576
25.17.1 Plasma Synthesis of Organic Compounds from Methane 576
25.17.2 The Kassel Mechanism of Methane Conversion in Thermal Plasma 576
25.17.3 Westinghouse Thermal Plasma Process of Natural Gas Conversion 576
25.17.4 Mechanism of the Thermal Plasma Production of Soot from Hydrocarbons 577
25.17.5 Direct Plasma Synthesis of Methanol and Formaldehyde by Oxidation of Methane 577
25.17.6 Nonthermal Plasma Synthesis of Formic Acid in CO2–H2O Mixture 577
25.17.7 Plasma?chemical Synthesis of Diamonds and Diamond Films 577
Chapter 26 Plasma Polymerization, Processing of Polymers, Treatment of Polymer Membranes 579
26.1 Plasma?chemical Polymerization of Hydrocarbons: Formation of Thin Polymer Films, Mechanisms of Plasma Polymerization 579
26.2 Plasma Polymerization Kinetics: Initiation of Polymerization by Dissociation of Hydrocarbons in Plasma Volume, Heterogeneous Polymerization of C1/C2 Hydrocarbons 580
26.3 Plasma Initiated Chain?polymerization, Mechanism and Kinetics of Plasma Polymerization of Methyl Methacrylate 581
26.4 Plasma?initiated Graft Polymerization 582
26.5 Formation of Polymer Macroparticles in Volume of Nonthermal Plasma of Hydrocarbons 582
26.6 General Properties of Plasma?polymerized Thin Films 583
26.7 Plasma Treatment of Polymer Surfaces: Initial Surface Products, Treatment of Polyethylene 584
26.8 Nonthermal Plasma Etch of Polymers, Contribution of Charged Species, Atoms, Radicals, and UV?radiation in Polymer Treatment and Etching 585
26.9 Plasma?chemical Oxidation, Nitrogenation, and Fluorination of Polymer Surfaces 586
26.10 Aging Effect in Plasma?treatment of Polymers 588
26.11 Plasma Modification of Wettability of Polymer Surfaces 588
26.12 Plasma Enhancement of Polymer Surface Adhesion, Metallization of Polymer Surfaces 589
26.13 Plasma Treatment of Textiles: Processing of Wool 590
26.14 Plasma Treatment of Textiles: Processing of Cotton, and Synthetic Textiles, the Lotus Effect 591
26.15 Plasma?chemical Treatment of Plastics, Rubber Materials, and Special Polymer Films 592
26.16 Plasma Modification of Gas?separation Polymer Membranes: Enhancement and Control of Selectivity and Permeability 593
26.17 Mechanisms of Plasma Modification of Gas?separating Polymer Membranes, Lame Equation 595
26.18 Modeling of Selectivity of the Plasma?treated Gas?separating Polymer Membranes 597
26.19 Problems and Concept Questions 598
26.19.1 Mechanisms and Kinetics of Plasma Polymerization 598
26.19.2 Temperature Dependence of the Plasma Polymerization Rate 598
26.19.3 Temperature Dependence of Electric Conductivity of Plasma?polymerized Films 598
26.19.4 Depth of Plasma Modification of Polymer Surfaces 598
26.19.5 Primary Plasma Components Active in High?depth Polymer Treatment 598
26.19.6 Plasma?chemical Nitrogenation and Fluorination of Polymer Surfaces 599
26.19.7 The Lotus Effect 599
26.19.8 Permeability of Plasma?treated Gas?separating Polymer Membranes 599
26.19.9 Threshold Effect of Plasma Treatment on Selectivity of Gas?separating Polymer Membranes 599
Chapter 27 Plasma Biology, Nonthermal Plasma Interaction with Cells 601
27.1 Plasma Biology as a Fundamental Basis of Plasma Medicine, Plasma Agriculture, and Plasma Food Processing 601
27.2 Types of Cells and Primary Cell Components Involved in Interaction with Plasma 602
27.2.1 The Cell Envelope: Membranes and Walls 602
27.2.2 The Nucleus, DNA, and Chromosomes 603
27.2.3 Cytoplasm and Cytosol 603
27.2.4 Vacuoles and Vesicles 603
27.2.5 Endoplasmic Reticulum 603
27.2.6 Ribosomes, Golgi Apparatus 604
27.2.7 Lysosomes 604
27.2.8 Mitochondria 604
27.2.9 Plastids 605
27.3 Transport Processes Across Cell Membranes and Their Relevance to Plasma Treatment of Cells and Its Selectivity 605
27.4 Cell Cycle, Cell Division, Cellular Metabolism as a Possible Base of Treatment Selectivity in Plasma Biology 607
27.5 Reactive Species in Cells and Their Similarity with Plasma?generated Reactive Species, Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) 608
27.6 Cellular Sources of Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS), Some NO?based Plasma?biological and Cell Processes 609
27.7 Cell Signaling Functions and Their Role in Plasma Biology, Contribution of Reactive Species in Cell Signaling 610
27.8 Mechanisms of Plasma Interaction with Cells: Direct vs Indirect Plasma Effects, Main Stages, and Key Players 612
27.9 Contribution of Plasma?generated Charged Species to Plasma Interaction with Cells 614
27.10 Contribution of UV, Electric Field, Hydrogen Peroxide, Acidity, Ozone, NOx, Other ROS, and RNS to Direct Plasma Cell Treatment, Effect of Presence of Water and Media 615
27.11 Biological Mechanisms of Direct DBD Plasma Interaction with Mammalian Cells: Key Role of Intracellular ROS, Plasma?induced DNA Damage 616
27.12 Effect of the Cell Medium on Plasma Interaction with Mammalian Cells, Plasma?induced Factors Crossing the Cell Membrane 617
27.13 Problems and Concept Questions 619
27.13.1 Osmosis, Flow of Water Across the Cell Membrane 619
27.13.2 Aquaporins (AQPs) and Selective Anticancer Behavior of Plasma 619
27.13.3 Cellular Metabolism and Selective Anticancer Behavior of Plasma 619
27.13.4 Intracellular ROS Transformations 619
27.13.5 Intracellular RNS Transformations 619
27.13.6 Liquid Medium Film Covering Cells 619
27.13.7 Propagation of the Electric Charge Effect Across Liquid Medium Film Covering Cells, the Bjerrum Length 619
27.13.8 Plasma?induced Electroporation 619
Chapter 28 Plasma Disinfection and Sterilization of Different Surfaces, Air, and Water Streams 621
28.1 Nonthermal Plasma Surface Sterilization, Microorganism Survival Curves, D?value of the Microorganism Deactivation 621
28.2 Cold Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Inactivation of Microorganisms on the Surfaces, Mechanisms and Kinetics of Plasma Sterilization 622
28.3 Contribution of Different Plasma Species and Factors in Cold Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Sterilization of Surfaces 623
28.4 Nonthermal Plasma Sterilization of Spores and Viruses: Inactivation of Bacillus cereus, Bacillus anthracis Spores, SARS?CoV?2 Coronavirus 624
28.5 Decontamination of Surfaces from Extremophile Organisms and Prion Proteins Using Nonthermal Atmospheric?Pressure Plasma 626
28.6 Sub?lethal Plasma Effect on Bacterial Cells, Apoptosis vs Necrosis in Plasma Treatment of Cells 627
28.7 Different Levels of Deactivation/Destruction of Microorganisms Due to Plasma Sterilization: Are They Dead or Just Scared to Death? Concept of VBNC 628
28.8 Nonthermal Plasma Sterilization of Air Streams, Direct Air Sterilization vs Application of Filters, Pathogen Detection and Remediation System (PDRF) 629
28.9 Phenomenological Kinetics of Nonthermal Plasma Sterilization of Air Streams 631
28.10 Plasma?provided Water Disinfection and Sterilization Using Ozone, UV, and Pulsed Electric Fields 633
28.11 Application of Different Types of Direct Pulsed?plasmas for Water Disinfection and Sterilization 634
28.12 Challenge of Electric Energy Cost of Plasma?induced Water Disinfection and Sterilization, Most Energy?effective Technologies Based on Application of Sparks and Other “Quasi?thermal” Warm Discharges 635
28.13 Dominating Role of UV?radiation in the Highly Energy?effective Inactivation of Microorganisms in Water Using the Pulsed Spark Discharge System 636
28.14 Problems and Concept Questions 638
28.14.1 Multi?slope Survival Curves for Plasma?induced Killing of Microorganisms 638
28.14.2 Effect of Membrane Damages by Ion Bombardment During Plasma Sterilization of Surfaces 638
28.14.3 Plasma?Induced Sterilization of Anthrax Spores Inside a Closed Paper Envelope Using DBD Plasma 638
28.14.4 Plasma?Induced Killing of Microorganisms vs Transferring them to the VBNC (viable?but?not?culturable) State 638
28.14.5 Nonthermal Plasma Sterilization of Air Streams, Plasma Suppression of the Airborne Microorganisms 639
28.14.6 Phenomenological Kinetics of Nonthermal Plasma Sterilization of Air Streams 639
28.14.7 Application of Different Types of Direct Pulsed?Plasmas for Water Disinfection and Sterilization 639
28.14.8 Dominating Role of UV?radiation in the Highly Energy?Effective Inactivation of Microorganisms in Water Using the Spark Discharge System 639
Chapter 29 Plasma Agriculture and Food Processing, Chemical and Physical Properties of Plasma?activated Water, Fundamentals and Applications to Wash and Disinfect Produce 641
29.1 Plasma Agriculture and Food Processing: A Rapidly Emerging Field of Plasma Science and Technology, Direct Application of Plasma vs Use of Plasma?activated Water and Solutions 641
29.2 Where Plasma Technologies Can be Specifically Applied in the Life Cycle of Fresh Produce? 642
29.3 Direct Plasma?stimulated Seed Germination and Growth: Application of Low, Medium, and Atmospheric Pressure Discharges 643
29.4 Some Biological Effects of Direct Plasma?induced Enhancement of Seed Germination and Growth of Seedlings 644
29.5 Indirect Plasma Effects on Seeds, Effect of Plasma?treated Water on Seed Germination and Enhancement of Seedling Growth 645
29.6 Plasma Stimulation of Plant Growth Using Plasma?activated Water: Major Mechanisms, Comparison of Different Plasma Sources, Plasma Hydroponics 646
29.7 Direct Application of Plasma for Disinfection of Agricultural Products 648
29.8 Direct Plasma?induced Disinfection of Crops and Seeds 649
29.9 Plasma?induced Disinfection of Meats, Cheeses, Other Foods, and Relevant Food Containers and Storage Areas 650
29.10 Direct Plasma?induced Disinfection of Foods Inside of Closed Packages 651
29.11 Plasma?water, and How Does It Work in Agriculture for Disinfection and Washing of Fresh Produce and Other Foods? Plasma Chemistry in Water, Plasma?water Spraying and Misting 652
29.12 Metastable Nature of Chemical and Biological Activity of Plasma?activated Water, Metastable Plasma Acids 654
29.13 Plasma Misting Fundamentals: Mist Droplet Size Distribution, Mist Particulates Explosion and Evaporation?condensation Effects 657
29.14 Application of Plasma Misting to Fresh Produce Disinfection and Other Sanitization Technologies 658
29.15 Large?volume Produce Washing with Plasma?activated Water, Effect of Treatment Temperature 661
29.16 Produce Washing with Plasma?activated Water, Effect of Organic Load, Nonoxidative Disinfection Processes 663
29.17 Plasma Treatment of Water Leads Not Only to Disinfection but additionally, to Enhancement of Washability of Fresh Produce 665
29.18 Plasma Treatment Effect on Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Other Physical Properties of Water 666
29.19 About Mechanisms of Plasma?induced Changes of Physical Properties of Water 669
29.20 Problems and Concept Questions 670
29.20.1 Plasma Stimulation of Plant Growth Using Plasma?activated Water 670
29.20.2 Direct Plasma?induced Disinfection of Foods Inside of Closed Packages 670
29.20.3 Plasma Chemistry of Agricultural Water, Oxidative Disinfection 670
29.20.4 Metastable Nature of Chemical and Biological Activity of Plasma?Activated Water 670
29.20.5 Plasma Misting for Fresh Produce Disinfection 670
29.20.6 Mist Droplet Size Distribution, Mist Particulates Explosion and Evaporation?condensation Effects 670
29.20.7 Effect of Treatment Temperature on Produce Washing with Plasma?activated Water 670
29.20.8 Effect of Organic Load on Produce Washing, Plasma?induced Nonoxidative Disinfection 671
29.20.9 Plasma?induced Enhancement of Washability of Fresh Produce vs Stimulation of Direct Disinfection with PAW 671
29.20.10 Plasma Treatment Effect on Surface Tension of Water, It's Surfactancy, and Washability 671
Chapter 30 Plasma Medicine: Safety, Selectivity, and Efficacy Penetration Depth of Plasma?Medical Effects
30.1 Safety, Selectivity, and Efficacy are Key Factors in Direct Plasma Treatment of Wounds and Diseases: Prehistory, History, and Nowadays of Plasma Medicine 673
30.2 Major Discharges in Plasma Medicine: Floating?electrode Dielectric Barrier Discharge (FE?DBD), Plasma Jets, Pin?to?hole (PHD) Discharge, and Electrical Safety Issues 676
30.3 FE?DBD Plasma Uniformity and Plasma Controllability for Safe Treatment of Living Tissue 677
30.4 Indirect Plasma Application for Medical Purposes: Plasma Pharmacology, Use of Plasma Activated Aqueous Media 679
30.5 Plasma Pharmacology: Use of Plasma Activated Biological Media (PAM), Plasma Activated Lactate Solution (PAL), and Gels for Medical Purposes 680
30.6 FE?DBD Plasma in Direct Living Tissue Sterilization 682
30.7 Analysis of Toxicity (Nondamaging) in Direct FE?DBD Plasma Treatment of Living Tissues 683
30.8 Direct Plasma Interaction with Living Tissue: Not only Plasma Affects Tissue, but Tissue Affects Plasma as Well In?vitro Model Mimicking the Living Tissue
30.9 Depth of Penetration of Plasma?generated Active Species into Living Tissue 686
30.10 Plasma Effects Propagating into Living Tissue Deeper than Plasma Generated ROS/RNS, Effects of Radiation and Electric Field, Contribution of Cell?to?cell Signaling 688
30.11 Transferring Nanosecond Pulsed DBD Plasma Effects Across Barrier of Cells 689
30.12 Mechanisms of Plasma?induced Cell?to?cell Communication Leading to Deep Propagation of Plasma?medical Effects, Calcium Ion Wave Propagation 690
30.13 Standardization of Plasma?medical Devices and Approaches 692
30.14 Dosimetry of Plasma Medical Treatments and Procedures, Absorbed Energy Related Physical Approach to Dosimetry 693
30.15 Dosimetry of Plasma Medical Treatments and Procedures Based on Biological Responses of Tissues 695
30.16 Problems and Concept Questions 696
30.16.1 Electrical Safety of the FE?DBD Plasma Source for Direct Medical Treatment of Humans and Animals 696
30.16.2 Safety of the FE?DBD Plasma in Treatment of Nonuniform Living Tissues 696
30.16.3 Medical Applications of the Plasma?Activated Ringer's Lactate Solution (PAL) 696
30.16.4 Mechanisms of Plasma?Induced Cell?To?Cell Communication Leading to Deep Propagation of Plasma?Medical Effects 696
30.16.5 Direct Relation Between the Medical Treatment Dose and the Treatment Energy in FE?DBD Plasma 696
30.16.6 Effective, and Safe Integrated Absorbed Energy Doses of the Plasma Medical DBD Treatment 696
30.16.7 Relation Between Integrated Absorbed Energy Doses in DBD with Absorbed Radiation Doses 697
30.16.8 Integrated Absorbed Energy Doses in DBD Leading to Necrosis of Treated Tissue 697
30.16.9 Plasma Treatment Units (PTU), Dosimetry Approach Based on Biological Readout 697
Chapter 31 Plasma Medicine: Healing of Wounds and Ulcerations, Blood Coagulation 699
31.1 Plasma Wound Healing, Types of Wounds, and Relevant Healing Processes 699
31.2 Specifics of Acute and Chronic Wounds Important for Their Plasma Healing 700
31.3 Effects of Plasma?generated NO on Wound Healing and Other Medical Treatments 702
31.4 Intensive?NO?generating Plasma Sources for Wound Treatment 703
31.5 Nitric Oxide Effects in Plasma?medical Plazon Treatment: Cell Cultures, Wound Tissues, Animal Models 704
31.6 Clinical Tests of Plasma?induced NO?therapy of Wounds: Plasma?medical Plazon Healing of Ulcers 705
31.7 Other Plazon Clinical Tests of Plasma?induced NO?therapy of Wounds 707
31.8 Wound Healing Using Pin?to?hole (PHD) and Microwave Transitional “Warm” Plasma Discharges 709
31.9 Treatment of Skin and Infected Wounds Using FE?DBD Plasma 710
31.10 Plasma Wound Healing in Clinical Studies 712
31.11 “Scientifically Based” Plasma?medical Devices Healing Wounds and Ulcerations in Medical Market 713
31.12 Preventing and Suppressing Bleeding Using Thermal Plasma Cauterization Devices, Argon Plasma Coagulators (APS) 713
31.13 Nonthermal Atmospheric?pressure Plasma?assisted Blood Coagulation 714
31.14 Biochemical Mechanisms of Nonthermal Plasma?induced Blood Coagulation, Contribution of Ca2+ Ionic Factor to Blood Coagulation Cascade 716
31.15 Plasma?induced Blood Coagulation: Plasma Influence of Protein Activity, Natural?soft, Intermediate, and Strong Regimes of Stopping Bleeding 718
31.16 Problems and Concept Questions 719
31.16.1 Intensive?NO?generating Plasma Sources for Wound Treatment 719
31.16.2 Direct FE?DBD Treatment of Heavy Bleeding and Infected Wounds 720
31.16.3 Thermal Plasma Cauterization Devices, Argon Plasma Coagulators (APC) 720
31.16.4 Biochemical Mechanisms of Nonthermal Plasma?induced Blood Coagulation 720
31.16.5 Natural?soft, Intermediate, and Strong Regimes of Stopping Bleeding 720
Chapter 32 Plasma Medicine: Dermatology and Cosmetics, Dentistry, Inflammatory Dysfunctions, Gastroenterology, Cardiovascular, and Other Diseases, Bioengineering and Regenerative Medicine, Cancer Treatment and Immunotherapy 721
32.1 Plasma Dermatology, Clinical Trials 721
32.2 Plasma Cosmetics Closely Related to Dermatological Studies 722
32.3 Plasma Dentistry: Structure of Teeth, Challenges for Plasma Application 724
32.4 First Effective Plasma Applications to Dental Health 725
32.5 Modification of Implant Surface, Enhancing Adhesive Qualities, Polymerization, Surface Coating, and Other Material?related Plasma Applications in Dentistry 727
32.6 Direct Application of Nonthermal Plasma in Dentistry 728
32.7 Plasma Treatment of Inflammatory Dysfunctions and Infections 729
32.8 Plasma Gastroenterology: Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) 731
32.8.1 Pin?to?hole Microdischarge Plasma Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis 731
32.9 Plasma in Cardiovascular Diseases: Plasma Effect on Whole Blood Viscosity (WBV) 734
32.10 Plasma in Cardiovascular Diseases: Control of Blood Rheological Properties and Low?density?lipoprotein (LDL) Cholesterol, Stimulation of Angiogenesis 736
32.11 Plasma?assisted Tissue Engineering: Regulation of Bio?properties of Polymers, Bioactive Micro?xerography, Cell Attachment and Proliferation on Polymer Scaffolds 737
32.12 Plasma Control of Stem Cells and Tissue Regeneration, Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSC) into Bone and Cartilage Cells, Plasma Orthopedics 739
32.13 Plasma Treatment of Cancer, Direct and Indirect (Plasma?treated Solutions) Approaches 740
32.14 Plasma Abatement of Malignant Cells, Apoptosis vs Necrosis of Cancer Cells 741
32.15 Nonthermal Plasma Treatment of Explanted Tumors in Animal Models 743
32.16 Plasma Control and Suppression of Precancerous Conditions in Dermatology, Clinical FE?DBD Treatment of Actinic Keratosis 743
32.17 On a Way to Larger Clinical Studies in Plasma Oncology, Combination Therapies, Clinical Plasma Treatment of Cancer 745
32.18 Plasma in Onco?immunotherapy, Plasma?induced Systemic Tumor?specific Immunity, Immunogenic Cell Death, and Overcoming Immune Suppression 746
32.19 FE?DBD Plasma Immunotherapeutic Treatment of Colorectal Tumors in Animal Model, Vaccination in Plasma Cancer Treatment 747
32.20 Problems and Concept Questions 748
32.20.1 Nonthermal Plasma Dermatology 748
32.20.2 Direct Nonthermal Plasma Applications in Dentistry 748
32.20.3 Pin?to?hole Microdischarge Plasma Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis 748
32.20.4 Plasma Effect on Whole Blood Viscosity (WBV) 749
32.20.5 Nonthermal Plasma Control of Low?density?lipoprotein (LDL) Cholesterol in Blood 749
32.20.6 Plasma Control of Stem Cells and Tissue Regeneration, a Pathway from Plasma Orthopedics to Plasma Cosmetics 749
32.20.7 Selectivity of Nonthermal Plasma Treatment of Cancers 749
32.20.8 Plasma in Onco?immunotherapy, Plasma?induced Systemic Tumor?specific Immunity 749
Afterword and Acknowledgements 751
References 755
Index 775
EULA 798

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 18.12.2023
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie
• Schlagworte: chemical engineering • Chemische Verfahrenstechnik • inorganic plasma applications • materials processing • Materials Science • Materialverarbeitung • Materialwissenschaften • organic plasma applications • Physics • Physik • Plasma Applications • plasma discharge fundamentals • plasma discharges • plasma fundamentals • Plasma physics • Plasmaphysik • plasma practice problems • plasma practice questions • plasma technologies • plasma textbook
• ISBN-13: 9783527834129 / 9783527834129