Rubber Technology (eBook)

Compounding and Testing for Performance

John S. Dick (Herausgeber)

eBook Download: PDF

2014 | 1. Auflage
XXIV, 568 Seiten
Carl Hanser Fachbuchverlag
978-3-446-43973-3 (ISBN)

Infos

Rubber Technology: Compounding and Testing for Performance is a practical guide to cost-effective formulating of rubber compounds to achieve optimal processing and performance. It provides a thorough discussion of the principles of rubber compounding, rubber testing, and how various compound changes will effect different properties and test measurements.
Rubber compounding is discussed as a series of interdependent systems such as the elastomer system, the filler-oil system, the cure system, etc. A holistic approach is used to show how changes in these different systems will affect specific compound properties.
Much attention is given to trade-offs in properties and emphasis is placed on finding the best balance for compound cost, processing properties, and product performance.
Contents:
- Processing Characteristics and Testing
- Compound Performance Characteristics and Testing
- Rubber Compound Economics
- Methodology for Compounding
- Overview of Elastomer Selection
- General Purpose Elastomers and Blend
- Specialty Elastomers and Blends
- Polyurethanes
- Thermoplastic Elastomers
- Recycled Rubber
- Carbon Black and Oil Loadings
- Non-Black Filler Loadings
- Synthetic Plasticizers and Processing Aids
- Sulfur Cure Systems
- Cures for Specialty Elastomers
- Peroxide Cure System
- Resin Cures, Resin Reinforcement, and Resin Tackifiers
- AO Systems
- Adhesion Promoters to Brass / Bronze Coated Substrates
- Blowing Agents
- Flame Retardants
- Mixing

Inhalt

Preface 6
Contents 8
Contributers 22
1 Rubber Compounding: Introduction, Definitions, and Available Resources 26
1.1 Introduction 26
1.2 The Recipe 27
1.3. Classification of Rubber Compounding Ingredients 28
1.4 Standard Abbreveiations for Compounding Ingredients 29
1.5 The Diversity of Rubber Recipes 29
1.6 Compatibility of Compounding Ingredients 30
1.7 Rubber Compounding Ingredients' Specifications 32
1.8 Raw Material Source Books 32
1.9 Key Source References for Formulations 34
1.10 Technical Organizations 35
1.11 Key Technical Journals and Trade Magazines 36
1.12 Regurarly Scheduled Technical Conferences 38
1.12.1 Regurarly Scheduled Courses 38
1.13 Web Sites Available 39
2. Compound Processing Characteristics and Testing 42
2.1 Introduction 42
2.2 Manufacturing Process 42
2.2.1 Two Roll Mill 42
2.2.2 Internal Mixers 42
2.2.3 Further Downstream Processing 44
2.2.4 Curing Process 45
2.2.5 Factory Problems 45
2.3 Processability Characteristics and Measurements 46
2.3.1 Viscosity 47
2.3.2 Shear Thinning 52
2.3.3 Elasticity 54
2.3.4 Time to Scorch 58
2.3.5 Cure Rate 61
2.3.6 Ultimate State of Cure 64
2.3.7 Reversion Resistance 65
2.3.8 Green Strength 66
2.3.9 Tackiness 67
2.3.10 Stickiness 67
2.3.11 Dispersion 67
2.3.12 Stock Storage Stability 68
2.3.13 Mis-Compounding 68
2.3.14 Cellular Rubber Blow Reaction 68
3 Vulcanizate Physical Properties, Performance Charecteristics, and Testing 71
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Density 71
3.3. Hardness 72
3.4 Tensile Stress-Strain 73
3.5 Stress-Strain Properties under Compression 74
3.6 Stress Strain Properties under Shear 75
3.7 Dynamic Properties 75
3.8 Low Temperature Properties 78
3.8.1 Brittle Point 79
3.8.2 Gehman Test 79
3.9 Stress Relevation, Creep, and Set 80
3.10 Permeability (Transmission) 82
3.11 Cured Adhesion 82
3.12 Tear Resistance 83
3.13 Degredation Properties 85
3.13.1 Flex Fatigue Resistance 85
3.13.2 Heat Resistance 87
3.13.3 Ozone Resistance 89
3.13.4 Weathering Resistance 90
3.13.5 Resitance of Liquids 90
3.13.6 Abrasion and Wear Resistance 91
4 Rubber Compound Economics 94
4.1. Introduction 94
4.2. Compound Cost Calculations 94
4.2.1 Specific Gravity 94
4.2.2 Cost/lb 95
4.2.3 Lb-Volume Cost 95
4.2.4 Part Cost 95
4.2.5 Conversion Factors for Calculating Part Cost 95
4.3 Measuring Specific Gravity (Density) 97
4.4 Cost Calculations 97
4.4.1 Base Compound 97
4.4.2 Same Ingredient Volume and Equal Cost 98
4.4.3 Low Cost/lb 98
4.4.4 High Specific Gravity 99
4.5 Compound Design and Cost 100
4.6 Reducing Compound Cost 100
4.6.1 High-Structure Carbon Blacks 101
4.6.2 White Compounds 101
4.6.3 Antioxidants/Antiozonants 101
4.6.4 Polymer Substitutions 102
5 The Technical Project Approach to Experimental Design and Compound Development 111
5.1 Introduction 111
5.2 Part 1: Steps in a Technical Project 113
5.2.1 Initial Action Required 113
5.2.2 Experimental Design 113
5.2.3 Conduct Measurements 120
5.2.4 Conduct Analysis and Evaluate Preliminary Modell 121
5.2.5 Prepare Report 121
5.3 Part 2: Using Experimental Designs 121
5.3.1 Screening Designs - Simple Treatment Comparisons 121
5.3.2 Screening Designs - Multifactor Experiments 124
5.3.3 Exploratory Designs - Multifactor Experiments 128
5.3.4 Evaluating the Statistical Significance of Effect Coefficients 129
6 Elastomer Selection 150
6.1 Overview 150
6.1.1 Commodity and General Purpose Elastomers 150
6.1.2 High Volume Specialty Elastomers 155
6.1.3 Low Volume Specialty Elastomers 160
6.1.4 Thermoplastic Elastomers 164
7 General Purpose Elastomers and Blends 166
7.1 Introduction 166
7.2 Natural Rubber and Polyisoprene 166
7.3 Polybutadiene 169
7.4 Copolymers and Terpolymers of Styrene, Butadiene, and Isoprene 172
7.5 Compounding with General Purpose Polymers 175
7.5.1 Polymer Characterization 176
7.5.2 Polymer Effect on Cure Rate 178
7.5.3 Polymer Effect on Stress-Strain 181
7.5.4 Hysteresis 182
7.5.5 Compability with SIR 10 190
7.5.6 Fatigue Properties 194
7.5.7 Compression Set 195
7.6 Conclusion 196
8 Specialty Elastomers 198
8.1 Introduction 198
8.2 Butyl Rubber 198
8.2.1 Introduction 198
8.2.2 Butyl Rubber Physical Properties 199
8.2.3 Butyl Rubber Properties, Vulcanization, and Applications 199
8.2.4 Gas Permeabiltity 200
8.2.5 Ozone and Weathering Resistance 201
8.2.6 Butyl Rubber Vulcanization 201
8.3 Halogenated Butyl Rubber 203
8.3.1 Introduction 203
8.3.2 Compounding Halobutyl and Star-Branched Halobutyl Rubbers 204
8.3.3 Processing Halobutyl Rubber 206
8.3.4 Halobutyl Rubber Vulcanization and Applications 207
8.3.5 Halobutyl Rubber General Applications 210
8.3.6 Cured Properties 211
8.3.7 Flex Resistance/Dynamic Properties 211
8.3.8 Compatibility with Other Elastomers 212
8.3.9. Halobutyl Rubber Compound Applications 212
8.4 EPM/EPDM 215
8.4.1 Introduction 215
8.4.2 Ethylene/Propylene Content 215
8.4.3 Diene Content 216
8.4.4 Rheology 217
8.5 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene Rubber 218
8.5.1 Introduction 218
8.5.2 Chemical and Physical Properties - Relating to Application 218
8.5.3 Polymer (Elastomer) Microstructure 221
8.5.4 Polymer (Elastomer) Macrostructure 221
8.5.5 Gel 221
8.5.6 Molecular Weight 222
8.5.7 Hot NBR 222
8.5.8 Crosslinked Hot NBR 223
8.5.9 Cold NBR 223
8.5.10 Carboxylated Nitrile (XNBR) 223
8.5.11 Bound Antioxidant NBR 224
8.6 Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene Elastomers 226
8.6.1 Introduction 226
8.6.2 Applications 227
8.6.3 Properties 227
8.6.4 Formulating 227
8.6.5 Processing 228
8.7 Polyacrylate Elastomers 228
8.7.1 Polymer Composition 228
8.7.2 Basic Compounding of Polyacrylate Polymers 230
8.7.3 Processing Guidelines 231
8.8 Polychloroprene (Neoprene) 232
8.8.1 Introduction 232
8.8.2 Basic Characteristics of Polychloroprene 233
8.8.3 Families of Neoprene 233
8.8.4 Neoprene 'G' Family 233
8.8.5 Neoprene 'W' Family 235
8.8.6 Neoprene 'T' Family 236
8.9 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CM) 236
8.9.1 Introduction 236
8.9.2 General Characteristics 237
8.10 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSM) 238
8.10.1 Introduction 238
8.10.2 General Purpose Types of Hypalon 240
8.10.3 Speciality Types of Hypalon 240
8.10.4 Unvulcanized Applications 241
8.11 Polyepichlorohydrin Elastomer 241
8.11.1 Introduction 241
8.11.2 Properties 241
8.11.3 Formulating 242
8.11.4 Nonlead Cure System 243
8.11.5 Adjustments 243
8.11.6 Processing 243
8.11.7 Internal Mixer - Procedure 244
8.11.8 Extrusion 244
8.11.9 Molding 244
8.12 Ethylene-Acrylic Elastomers 246
8.12.1 Introduction 246
8.12.2 Polymer Composition and Effect on Properties 247
8.12.3 Polymer Selection 248
8.13 Polynorbornene 249
8.13.1 Introduction 249
8.13.2 Applications 249
8.13.3 Compounding 250
8.13.4 Fillers 250
8.13.5 Oils/Plastizers 250
8.13.6 Cure System 250
8.13.7 Rebound/Resilience 251
8.13.8 Vibration Damping 251
8.13.9 Blends 251
8.13.10 Mixing and Processing 251
8.13.11 Calendaring 252
8.13.12 Extrusion 252
8.13.13 Molding 254
8.13.14 Summary 254
8.14 Fluoroelastometer 254
8.14.1 Introduction 254
8.14.2 Background 254
8.14.3 Applications 256
8.14.4 Viton Types 256
8.15 Silicone Elastomers 260
8.15.1 Introduction 260
8.15.2 Selection 260
8.15.3 Fillers 260
8.15.4 Antistructuring Agents 261
8.15.5 Heat Stabilizers 261
8.15.6 Peroxide Cures 261
8.15.7 Platinum Cures 262
8.15.8 RTV Cures 262
9 Polyurethane Elastomers 263
9.1 Introduction 263
9.2 Polyurethane Chemistry ans Morphology 263
9.3 Polyurethane Products 266
9.4 Cast Polyurethane Processing Overview 267
9.5. Molding Methods 269
9.5.1 Open Casting 269
9.5.2 Centrifugal Molding 270
9.5.3 Vacuum Casting 270
9.5.4 Compression Molding 270
9.5.5 Transfer Molding 270
9.5.6 Liquid Injection Molding (LIM) 271
9.5.7 Spraying 271
9.5.8 Moldless Rotational Casting 271
9.6. How to select a Polyurethane Elastomer 271
9.6.1 Types of Prepolymers 272
9.6.2 Types of Curatives 274
9.6.3 Processing Conditions 275
9.6.4 Additives 277
9.7 Comparison of Polyuethanes with Other Elastomers 278
9.7.1 Limitations of Polyuerthane Elastomers 280
9.8 Polyuerthane Selection Guidelines 282
9.8.1 Selecting a Polyuerthane Elastomer for a New Application 285
9.9 Millable Gums 286
9.10 Thermoplastic Polyuethanes 287
10 Thermoplastic Elastomers 289
10.1 Introduction 289
10.2 Position in Spectrum of Polymeric Materials 289
10.3 Classification of TPEs 290
10.3.1 Chemistry and Morphology 290
10.3.2 Styrenic Block Copolymers 293
10.3.3 Copolysters 295
10.3.4 Thermoplastic Polyurethanes 296
10.3.5 Polyamides 297
10.3.6 Thermoplastic Elastomeric Olefins 298
10.3.7 Thermoplastic Vulcanizates 299
10.4 TPEs and Thermoset Rubbers 301
10.5 Fabrication of TPEs 303
10.5.1 Economy of Thermoplastics Processing 303
10.5.2 Injection Molding 303
10.5.3 Extrusion 303
10.5.4 Blow Molding 305
10.5.5 Other Processing Methods 306
10.6 Acknowledgments 306
11 Recycled Rubber 309
11.1 Introduction 
309 
11.1.1 Tire Derived Fuel 
309 
11.1.2 Automotive Industry's Recycling Efforts 
310 
11.2 Recycling Methods 311
11.2.1 Reclaiming 311
11.2.2 Ambient Ground Rubber 312
11.2.3 Cyrogenic Ground Rubber 313
11.2.4 Wet Ground Rubber 317
11.2.5 Surface Treatment and Additives for Producing Recycled Rubber 317
11.3 Testing, Storage, and Characterization 317
11.3.1 Testing STandards 317
11.3.2 Material Storage 318
11.3.3 Moisture Content 318
11.3.4 Bulk Density 318
11.3.5 Chemical Analysis and Material Specifications 318
11.3.6 Particle Size and Distribution 319
12 Compounding with Carbon Black and Oil 322
12.1 Introduction: Carbon Black Affects Everything 322
12.2 Characterization of Carbon Black 322
12.2.1 The Particle, the Aggregate, and the Agglomerate 323
12.2.2 Surface Area, Structure, and Surface Acticity 323
12.2.3 Continents Other than Carbon (Impurities) 325
12.2.4 Pellets 326
12.2.5 ASTM Nomenclature 326
12.3 Handling Carbon Black 328
12.4 Mixing Carbon Black 328
12.4.1 Pellet Properties and Analyticals 328
12.4.2. Effect of Analytics on Dispersion 328
12.4.3 The Mixing Process 329
12.5 Subsequent Processability of the Company 331
12.6 Compounding Carbon Black 331
12.6.1 Optimum Loading 331
12.6.2 Importance of Dispersion 334
12.6.3 Carbon Black Compounding Tips 335
12.6.4 The Tire Industry's Tradeoffs 339
12.7 Hysteresis Reducing Tips 341
12.7.1 Radical Compounding 341
12.7.2 Lower Loadings of High Structure 342
12.7.3 Carbon-Silica Dual Phase Fillers 343
12.8 Practical Applications: Tire Examples 343
12.8.1. OE Passenger 343
12.8.2 Replacement Passenger-Tire 343
12.8.3 HP Passenger-Tire Treads 344
12.8.4 Medium Radial Truck Treads 344
12.8.5 Wire Coat or Skim Stocks 344
12.8.6 Innerliner Compounding 344
12.9 Major Tradcoffs for Industrial Rubber Products 345
12.9.1 Loading/Reinforcement/Cost 345
12.10 Compounding Tips: Industrial Rubber Products 345
12.10.1 Extrusion Profiles and Products 345
12.10.2 Molded Products 346
12.10.3 Hose Applications 346
12.11 Basics of Carbon Black Manufacture 347
12.11.1 History 347
12.11.2 The Oil-Furnace Process 347
13 Precipated Silicia and Non-Black Fillers 350
13.1 Introduction 350
13.2 Mineral Fillers 350
13.2.1 Calcium Carbonate 351
13.2.2 Baryte 351
13.2.3 Ground Crystalline SIlica 351
13.2.4 Biogenic Silica 352
13.2.5 Kaolin Clay 352
13.2.6 Talc 
353 
13.2.7 Alumina Trihydrate 353
13.3 Synthetic Fillers 353
13.3.1 Precipated Calcium Carbonate 354
13.3.2 Metal Oxides 354
13.3.3. Precipated Silica 354
13.3.4 Silicates 356
13.4 Surface Treatment 356
13.5 Compound Applications 357
13.5.1 General Compounding Principles 358
13.5.2 White Sidewall 359
13.5.3 Black Sidewall 361
13.5.4 Wire Coat 361
13.5.5 Innerliner 364
13.5.6 Tread 365
13.5.7 Specialty Applications 366
14 Ester Plasticizers and Processing Additives 369
14.1 Ester Plasticizers for Elastomers 369
14.1.1 Derivation 369
14.1.2 Philosophical 372
14.1.3 Applications 373
14.1.4 Applicatum Trends 385
14.2 Process Additives 388
14.2.1 Control of Viscosity 389
14.2.2 Mode of Action of Process Additives 394
14.2.3 Application of Process Additives 398
15 Sulfur Cure System 405
15.1 Introduction and Historical Background 405
15.2 Vulcanizing Agents 406
15.3. Activators 407
15.4. Accelerators 408
15.5 Conventional, Semi-Efficient 411
15.6 Retarders and Inhibitors 412
15.7 Recent Developments 414
16 Cures for Specialty Elastomers 420
16.1 Introduction 420
16.2 Cure System for EPDM 420
16.3 Cure Systems for Nitrile 422
16.4 Cure Systems for Polychloroprene 425
16.5 Cure Systems for Butyl and Halobutyl Rubber 427
17 Peroxide Cure Systems 436
17.1 Introduction 436
17.1.1 What is an Organic Peroxide? 
436 
17.1.2 Classes of Organic Peroxides 
436 
17.1.3 General Peroxide Selection Guidelines 
437 
17.2 Peroxide Used in Crosslinking 445
17.2.1 Diacyl Peroxides 
446 
17.2.2 Peroxyester and Monoperoxycarbonate Peroxides 
447 
17.2.3 Peroxyketal and Dialkyl Type Peroxides 
447 
17.2.4 Performance Characteristics of Type Peroxides 
451 
17.2.5 t-Amyl and t-Butyl Type Peroxides 
453 
17.2.6 Effect of Additives When Crosslinking with Peroxides 
455 
17.3 Role of Monomeric Coagnets in Peroxide Crosslinking 455
17.3.1 Crosslinking PE with Coagentsand Peroxides 457
17.3.2 Crosslinking EPDM with Coagents and Peroxides 
458 
17.3.3 Crosslinking HNBR with Coagents and Peroxides 
459 
17.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Peroxide Crosslinking versus Sulfur Vulcanization 459
18 Tackifiying, Curing, and Reinforcing Resins 463
18.1 Introduction 463
18.2 Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins 463
18.2.1 Types of Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins 
464 
18.3 Methylene Donor Resins 470
18.4 Resorcinol-Based Resins 471
18.5 High Styrene Resins 471
18.6 Petroleum-Derived Resins 471
18.7 Wood-Derived Resins 471
19 Antidegredants 473
19.1 Introduction 473
19.2 Properties of Antidegredants 474
19.2.1 Discoloration and Staining 474
19.2.2 Volatility 474
19.2.3 Solubility and Migration 474
19.2.4 Chemical Stability 475
19.2.5 Physical Form 476
19.2.6 Antidegradant Concentration 476
19.3 Antidegradant Types 476
19.3.1 Non Staining, Non Discoloring Antioxidants 477
19.3.2 STaining/DIscoloring Antioxidants 479
19.3.3 Antioxidants 481
19.4 Examples of Antidegradant Activity 483
19.4.1 Oxidation Resistance 483
19.4.2 Effect of Antidegradants on Fatigue Life 483
19.4.3 Combinations of Antiozonants and Antioxidants 485
19.4.4 Resistance to Metal Poisoning 486
20 Compounding for Brass WIre Adhesion 489
20.1 Introduction 489
20.2 WIre Bonding Sytems 489
20.2.1 Cobalt 490
20.2.2 RF Resin Cobalt 490
20.3 The Adhesion Mechanism 491
20.4 Compound Ingredient Effects 491
20.4.1 Mixing 492
20.4.2 Testing 492
20.4.3 Regression Plots 493
20.5 Model NR Ply Compounds 498
20.5.1 Black Control Compound 498
20.5.2 Black/Cobalt Compund 498
20.5.3 Black/Cobalt/RF Resin 499
20.5.4 Black/Silica/Cobalt/RF Resin 499
20.6 Summary 499
21 Chemical Blowing Agents 501
21.1 Introduction 501
21.2 Terminology 501
21.2.1 Open Cell Structure 502
21.2.2 Closed Cell Structure 502
21.3 Inorganic Blowing Agents 503
21.4 Organic Blowing Agents 503
21.4.1 Azodicarbonamide 504
21.4.2 Sulfonyl Hydrazides 509
21.4.3 Dinitrosopentamethylenetetramine 509
21.5 Methods of Expansion 511
21.5.1 Low Pressure Molding Process 511
21.5.2 High Pressure Molding Process 511
21.5.3 Continuous Vulcanization 512
22 Flame Retardants 514
22.1 Introduction 514
22.2 Fire Standards, Testing, and Application 514
22.3 Commonly Used Flame Retardants in Elastomers 516
22.3.1 Aliphatic and Alicyclic Halogen Sources 516
22.3.2 Aromatic Halogen Sources 516
22.3.3 Synergists of Halogen Sources 516
22.4 Compounding and Dispersion Considerations 518
22.4.1 Polychloroprene 519
22.4.2 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CM) 520
22.4.3 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSM) 521
22.4.4 Ethylene-Propylene-Diene-Monomer (EPDM) 521
22.4.5 Styrene-Butadiene (SBR) 524
22.4.6 Nitrile-Butadiene Rubber (NBR) and Hydrogenated-Nitrile-Butadiene Rubber (HNBR) 524
22.4.7 Silicone Elastomer 525
22.4.8 Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVM) 526
22.4.9 Ethylene-Propylene Elastomer (EPR) 527
22.4.10 Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE) 527
23 Rubber Mixing 529
23.1 Introduction 529
23.2 History 529
23.3 Equipment 530
23.3.1 Mills 530
23.3.2 Internal Mixers 530
23.4 Mixing 535
23.4.1 Mill Mixing 535
23.4.2 Internal Mixer 536
23.5 Mixing Methods 539
23.5.1 Natural Rubber Mastication 539
23.5.2 Masterbatch 540
23.5.3 Phase Mixing 540
23.5.4 Single-Stage Mix 542
23.5.5 Single-Cycle Mix 542
23.5.6 Two-Stage Mix 542
23.5.7 Tandem Mix 542
23.5.8 Three-Stage Mix 543
23.5.9 Upside Down Mix 543
23.5.10 Variable Speed Mixing 543
23.5.11 Final Mix 544
23.5.12 Conntinous Mixing 545
23.5.13 E-SBR Carbon Black Masterbatch 545
23.5.14 Energy Mixing 546
Index 548

Rezensionen

"Alles in allem ist es Dick mit diesem Werk gelungen, die wichtigsten Aspekte des vielschichtigen Themas der Kautschuk-Compoundierung in einem einzigen Buch zusammenzutragen und einen hilfreichen Praxisleitfaden sowohl für Neueinsteiger als auch für erfahrene Compoundeure zu schaffen." Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Masberg, Kunststoffe, Dezember 2009

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 3.7.2014
• Verlagsort: München
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie
• Themenwelt: Technik
• Schlagworte: Compoundieren • Elastomere • Kautschuk • Materialprüfung • Mischen • Thermoplastische Elastomere
• ISBN-10: 3-446-43973-0 / 3446439730
• ISBN-13: 978-3-446-43973-3 / 9783446439733