Handbook of Air Pollution from Internal Combustion Engines (eBook)

Pollutant Formation and Control

Eran Sher (Autor)

eBook Download: EPUB | PDF

1998 | 1. Auflage
663 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-053275-2 (ISBN)

Infos

This handbook is an important and valuable source for engineers and researchers in the area of internal combustion engines pollution control. It provides an excellent updated review of available knowledge in this field and furnishes essential and useful information on air pollution constituents, mechanisms of formation, control technologies, effects of engine design, effects of operation conditions, and effects of fuel formulation and additives. The text is rich in explanatory diagrams, figures and tables, and includes a considerable number of references.

Key Features
* An important resource for engineers and researchers in the area of internal combustion engines and pollution control
* Presents and excellent updated review of the available knowledge in this area
* Written by 23 experts
* Provides over 700 references and more than 500 explanatory diagrams, figures and tables

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This handbook is an important and valuable source for engineers and researchers in the area of internal combustion engines pollution control. It provides an excellent updated review of available knowledge in this field and furnishes essential and useful information on air pollution constituents, mechanisms of formation, control technologies, effects of engine design, effects of operation conditions, and effects of fuel formulation and additives. The text is rich in explanatory diagrams, figures and tables, and includes a considerable number of references. An important resource for engineers and researchers in the area of internal combustion engines and pollution control Presents and excellent updated review of the available knowledge in this area Written by 23 experts Provides over 700 references and more than 500 explanatory diagrams, figures and tables

Inhalt

Front Cover 1
Handbook of Air Pollution from Internal Combustion Engines: Pollutant Formation and Control 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
List of Contributors 14
Acknowledgments 20
PART I: OVERVIEW 24
Chapter 1. Motor Vehicle Emissions Control: Past Achievements, Future Prospects 26
1.1 Synopsis 27
1.2 Introduction 27
1.3 Motor Vehicles and Air Pollution 28
1.4 The Science of Pollutant Formation and Control 32
1.5 Effectiveness of Current Emission Control Technology 38
1.6 Direct-Injection Engines, Two-Strokes, and Diesels 40
1.7 Future Prospects 43
References 46
PART II: GLOBAL ASPECTS 48
Chapter 2. Environment Aspects of Air Pollution 50
2.1 Introduction 51
2.2 Global Effects 51
2.3 Regional Effects 58
References 64
Chapter 3. Health Aspects of Air Pollution 65
3.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory System 66
3.2 Defense Mechanisms of the Lung 75
3.3 Ventilatory Function Tests 79
3.4 Principles of Inhalation Injuries 81
3.5 Airborne Pollutants Causing Cancer and other Diseases 86
References 87
Chapter 4. Economic and Planning Aspects of Transportation Emission 88
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 The Notion of Optimal Pollution Abatement and Control 91
4.3 Alternative Sets of Abatement Policies for Mobile- Source Emissions 95
4.4 Administrative Methods of Pollution Emissions Control 100
4.5 Indirect Pricing Mechanisms 105
4.6 Conclusions 109
References 110
PART III: SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES 114
Chapter 5. Introductory Chapter. Overview and the Role of Engines with Optical Access 116
5.1 Introduction 117
5.2 Engines with Optical Access 120
5.3 High-Speed Photography 121
5.4 Flame Front Detection 125
5.5 Mixture Preparation and Combustion Diagnostics 128
5.6 Some Applications of Engines with Optical Access 135
5.7 Conclusions 138
References 138
Chapter 6. Combustion-Related Emissions in SI Engines 141
6.1 Introduction 142
6.2 NOx Formation 147
6.3 Carbon Monoxide 158
6.4 HC Emissions 160
6.5 Summary 186
References 187
Chapter 7. Pollution from Rotary Internal Combustion Engines 194
7.1 Introduction 194
7.2 Sources of Hydrocarbon Emissions 198
References 211
Chapter 8. Control Technologies in Spark-Ignition Engines 212
8.1 Global and Local Emissions: A Brief Overview of the Problem 213
8.2 Global Emissions from SI Engines 228
8.3 Engine Control Factors for Local Emissions 232
8.4 Transient Operation of Engines and the Effect on Emissions 233
8.5 Some Details of Control Systems 245
8.6 Developments for the Future 269
References 278
PART IV: COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES 282
Chapter 9. Introduction 284
9.1 The Diesel Engine for Cars—Is There a Future? 285
9.2 State of Technology 288
9.3 Technology for the Future 292
9.4 Summary and Conclusions 301
Chapter 10. Combustion-Related Emissions in CI Engines 303
10.1 Introduction 304
10.2 Review of Current and Projected Emissions Concems—General Considerations 306
10.3 High-Speed DI Diesel Developments 308
10.4 Overview of Emissions from CI Engines 311
10.5 Current and Projected Global Emissions Legislative Requirements 324
10.6 Advanced Emission Reduction Strategies for the Year 2000 and Beyond 329
10.7 Steady-State and Transient Emissions 360
10.8 Application of Computational Tools Toward Predicting and Reducing Emissions 364
10.9 Advance Engineering Project 373
References 376
Chapter 11. Control Technologies in Compression-Ignition Engines 381
11.1 Introduction 382
11.2 Electronic Fuel Systems for Diesel Engines 388
11.3 Basic Principles of Electronic Control for Diesel Engines 397
11.4 Electronic Hardware for Diesel Engine Control 413
11.5 Exhaust Aftertreatment 429
References 440
PART V: TWO-STROKE ENGINES 444
Chapter 12. Introductory Chapter: From a Simple Engine to an Electrically Controlled Gasdynamic System 446
12.1 Introduction 447
12.2 Pollution Formation 449
12.3 Methods of Mixture Preparation 452
12.4 Techniques to Reduce Pollution 456
12.5 The Future of the Two-Stroke Engine 459
References 463
Chapter 13. Air Pollution from Small Two-Stroke Engines and Technologies to Control It 464
13.1 Pollutant Formation 465
13.2 Pollutant Control 471
13.3 Flow and Emission Diagnostics (Experimental Results) 479
References 496
Chapter 14. Air Pollution from Large Two-Stroke Diesel Engines and Technologies to Control It 500
14.1 Introduction 501
14.2 Regulated Emissions 502
14.3 Exhaust Emissions 505
14.4 Exhaust Emission Control Technologies—NOx Reduction Techniques 517
14.5 Exhaust Emission Control Technologies—Reduction of Other Pollutants 539
References 553
PART VI: FUELS 558
Chapter 15. Introductory Chapter: Fuel Effects 560
15.1 Historical Landmarks 561
15.2 Recent Developments 564
15.3 The Future 567
15.4 In Conclusion 568
Chapter 16. Fuel Effects on Emissions 570
16.1 Background 571
16.2 Gasolines (SI Engines) 573
16.3 Diesel Fuels (CI Engines) 598
16.4 Alternative Fuels 626
References 642
Appendix: 1 National Gasoline Specifications 647
Appendix: 2 National Specifications for Automotive Diesel Fuel 660
Appendix: 3 US EPA Models for Calculation of Fuel Effects on Exhaust Emissions 668
Index 676

Textauszug

Chapter 2

Environmental Aspects of Air Pollution

Eran Sher    Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pearlstone Center for Aeronautical Engineering Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel

2.1 Introduction   28

2.2 Global Effects   28

2.2.1 The Stratospheric Ozone Layer   28

2.2.2 The Chemistry of the Ozone Layer   31

2.2.3 The Ozone Hole   31

2.2.4 Global Warming   33

2.2.5 Greenhouse Gases   34

2.3 Regional Effects   35

2.3.1 Photochemical Smog   35

2.3.2 Ozone at Ground Level   37

2.3.3 Particulates   38

2.3.4 Acid Rain   39

2.3.5 Air Quality   40

References   41

2.1 INTRODUCTION

An air pollutant is a substance or effect dwelling temporarily or permanently in the air, which adversely alters the environment by interfering with the health, the comfort, or the food chain, or by interfering with the property values of people. A polluting substance can be a solid, liquid, gas, or submolecular particle, and may originate from a natural or an anthropogenic source, or both. It is estimated that anthropogenic pollutants in the atmosphere have changed the composition of the global air less that 0.01 percent. It is, however, widely accepted among scientists that even such a small change can have a significant adverse effect on the climate, ecosystems, and species of the planet. This is true in particular when the effects of rain acidity, urban air composition, and solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation are considered. The world’s primary air pollutants, their sources, and effects on human health are summarized in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1

World’s Primary Air Pollutants—Their Sources and Effects on Human Health

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Unnoticeable

Fuel-rich and stoichiometric combustion mainly from motor vehicles

Reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood by combining with haemoglobin, thus deprives tissues of O2

Nitrogen oxides (NO) and (NO2)

Lightning and bacterial activity in soils

High-temperature combustion mainly from motor vehicles

Cause eye, throat, and lung irritation. Primary pollutants that produce photochemical smog and acid rain, destroy ozone at the stratosphere

Particulates

Forest fires, wind erosion, and volcanic eruptions

Coal, waste, and fossil burning

Breathing difficulties

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Volcanic eruptions and decay

Coal combustion, ore smelters, petroleum refineries, and diesel engines

Causes eye, throat, and lung irritation. Primary pollutants that produce acid rain

Ozone (O3)

Lightning and photochemical reactions in the troposphere

Product of photochemical reactions in photochemical smog

Causes eye, throat, and lung irritation, impairs lung function

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Animal respiration, decay, and release from oceans

Fossil-fuel and wood combustion

Partly responsible for the atmospheric greenhouse effect

Hydrocarbons other than methane (VOCs), i.e., volatile organic compounds

Biological processes

Incomplete combustion and volatiles

Primary pollutants that produce photochemical smog

Methane (CH4)

Anaerobic decay, cud-chewing animals (cows, sheep, etc.), and oil wells

Natural-gas leak and combustion

Partly responsible for the atmospheric greenhouse effect

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

None

Used as solvent, aerosol propellant, and refrigerant

Destroy ozone at the stratosphere, thus reduce the ozone UV protective layer

2.2 GLOBAL EFFECTS

2.2.1 The Stratospheric Ozone Layer

The ozone layer is a region of the atmosphere 15 to 30 km above the earth’s surface that acts as a barrier to radiation by filtering out harmful ultraviolet rays from sunlight before they reach the surface of the planet, thus protecting the biosphere. The ozone layer is formed naturally in the upper atmosphere by the action of the sun’s ultraviolet rays. In this layer most of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by the ozone molecules, causing a rise in the temperature of the stratosphere and preventing vertical mixing so that the stratosphere forms a stable layer (Figure 2.1). Some ultraviolet light, however, does reach the ground. It is in a waveband from 290 to 320 nm, known as UV-B. It causes sunburn, some forms of skin cancer, and is associated with eye problems such as cataracts. In contrast to its harmful effects, the UV-B radiation is an important ingredient in the formation of vitamin D. Owing to the ozone layer, radiation with wavelengths in the band from 240 to 290 nm, known as UV-C, does not reach the ground at all. Radiation within these wavelengths destroys nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) and protein.

Fig.2.1 Profile of the earth’s atmosphere and some important processes that determine the concentration of the ozone in the stratosphere.

The ozone layer spans most of the stratosphere. It exists because oxygen filtering up from the top of the troposphere reacts under the influence of sunlight to form ozone. This photodissociation of oxygen is greatest above the equator and the tropics where solar radiation is strongest and most direct. From these regions, ozone is transported by winds within the stratosphere around the earth toward the polar regions to maintain the ozone layer.

In the whole stratosphere, at an altitude between 15 and 50 km, there are only about 5*109 tons of ozone. If all the ozone could be brought down to sea level and spread evenly around the globe, the pressure of the atmosphere would squeeze it into a layer just 3 mm thick [1]. The total overhead amount of atmospheric ozone at any location is expressed in terms of Dobson units (DU). One such unit is equivalent to a 0.01-mm thickness of pure ozone at standard conditions. The normal amount of overhead ozone at temperate latitudes is about 350 DU. Ozone concentrations in the tropics usually average 250 DU, whereas those in subpolar regions are about 450 DU.

2.2.2 The Chemistry of the Ozone Layer

The chemistry of ozone depletion is driven by energy associated with light from the sun. Ozone in the stratosphere is constantly being formed, decomposed, and reformed during daylight hours by a series of reactions that proceed simultaneously. Ozone is produced in the stratosphere because there is adequate UV-C from sunlight to dissociate some O2 molecules and so to produce oxygen atoms (this reaction absorbs and, therefore, contributes to the filtration of UV-C from sunlight):

2→UV‐C2O

  (2.1)

Most of the oxygen atoms collide with other O2 molecules and form ozone:

+O2→O3+heat

  (2.2)

The ozone gas absorbs and, therefore, filters UV-C and partially filters UV-B from sunlight, and is destroyed temporarily in this process:

3→UV−BandUV−CO2+O*

  (2.3)

where * denotes an excited state. The ozone is also destroyed when reacting with oxygen atoms, thus:

3+O→2O2

  (2.4)

Ozone is not formed below the stratosphere due to a lack of the UV-C required to produce the O atoms necessary to form O3; this type of sunlight has been absorbed by O2 and O3 in the stratosphere through reactions 2.1 and 2.3.

2.2.3 The Ozone Hole

Measurements of the overhead amounts of atmospheric ozone at the Antarctic Circle indicate that the total amounts of ozone each October have been gradually falling, with precipitous declines beginning in the mid-1970s. Many scientists believe that the changes in the size of the ozone hole are a naturally occurring phenomenon, and that many natural and human activities have amplified the event. For example, volcanic eruptions throw volcanic sulfuric acid high in the atmosphere, which can enhance the destructiveness of the chlorine chemicals that attack the ozone layer. It is therefore widely accepted that the hole increases each year because of human activities, especially the introduction of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrogen bromide (HBr) into the atmosphere. These substances were largely used (and still are being used today although to a lesser extent) as solvents, aerosol propellants, and refrigerants. The more important ozone-depleting chemicals are shown in...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 20.3.1998
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Mathematik / Informatik ► Informatik
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Ökologie / Naturschutz
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Bauwesen
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Fahrzeugbau / Schiffbau
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Maschinenbau
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie
• ISBN-10: 0-08-053275-6 / 0080532756
• ISBN-13: 978-0-08-053275-2 / 9780080532752