Psychology of Learning and Motivation (eBook)

Advances in Research and Theory

eBook Download: PDF

1997 | 1. Auflage
350 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
9780080863887 (ISBN)

Infos

The Psychology of Learning and Motivation publishes empirical and theoretical contributions in cognitive and experimental psychology, ranging from classical and instrumental conditioning to complex learning and problem solving. Each chapter provides a thoughtful integration of a body of work.

Inhalt

Front Cover 1
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Volume 37 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Contributors 10
Chapter 1. OBJECT-BASED REASONING 12
I. Introduction 12
II. Separation and Contrast between Content and Structure 15
III. Semantic Knowledge Determines How People Represent Problems 18
IV. Semantic Knowledge Affects Selection of Processing Strategies 32
V. Discussion 44
References 47
Chapter 2. ENCODING SPATIAL REPRESENTATION THROUGH NONVISUALLY GUIDED LOCOMOTION TESTS OF HUMAN PATH INTEGRATION 52
I. Navigational Concepts 53
II. General Assumptions and Findings Regarding 56
III. Representations and Processes Underlying Shortcuts in Space 62
IV. The Encoding-Error Model of Path Completion 64
V. General Methodology of Reported Experiments 69
VI. Encoding as Inferred from Reproduction and Verbal Report of Simple Paths 69
VII. Encoding Distances and Turns Inferred from Fitting the 73
VIII. Effects of Experience on Encoding Pathway Parameters 77
IX. When Does Updating of the Homing Vector Occur? Evidence Against Moment-to-Moment Updating 82
X. Group Individual Differences in Navigation without Vision 85
XI. General Summary and Conclusions 88
References 92
Chapter 3. ATTENUATING INTERFERENCE DURING COMPREHENSION: THE ROLE OF SUPPRESSION 96
I. Introduction 96
II. Attenuating Interference during Lexical Access 99
III. Attenuating Interference during Anaphoric Reference 101
IV. Attenuating Interference during Cataphoric Reference 103
V. Attenuating Interference during Syntactic Parsing 105
VI. Attenuating Interference during Metaphor Interpretation 106
VII. Attenuating Interference during Inference Revision 108
VIII. Attenuating Interference and Comprehension Skill 109
IX. Summary 112
References 113
Chapter 4. COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN COUNTERFACTUAL THINKING ABOUT WHAT MIGHT HAVE BEEN 116
I. Counterfactual Thinking 116
II. Mental Models and Counterfactual Thinking 122
III. Three Phenomena of Counterfactual Thinking 134
IV. Conclusions 159
References 162
Chapter 5. EPISODIC ENHANCEMENT OF PROCESSING FLUENCY 166
I. Introduction 166
II. Experiment Series 1: Data-Driven and Conceptually Driven Encoding Tasks 171
III. Experiment Series 2: Comparing Masked Word Identification and Word Fragment Completion 178
IV. Experiment Series 3: The Question of Conscious Recollection 182
V. Experiment Series 4: Speeded Word Reading as an Indirect Measure of Memory 195
VI. Experiment Series 5: Color Naming versus World Reading and the Specificity of Priming 200
VII. Experiment Series 6: Sources of Priming in Masked Word Indentification 204
VIII. Experiment Series 7: Episodic Effects on Perceptual Judgments 209
IX. Conclusion 214
References 217
Chapter 6. PRODUCTION, EVALUATION, AND PRESERVATION OF EXPERIENCES CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSING IN REMEMBERING AND PERFORMANCE TASKS 222
I. Introduction 222
II. Separate-Systems Assumptions: A Brief Summary 224
III. Selective Construction and Preservation of Experiences: Outline of the Account 225
PART I CONSTRUCTIVE PRODUCTION 232
IV. Theme 1: Concepts Are Not Automatically Abstracted across Instances 232
V. Theme 2: Memory Preserves Processing Experiences, NotStimulus Structures 236
VI. Theme 3: Selective Use of General and Particular Knowledge Is Controlled by the Stimulus Compound 246
VII. Theme 4: Processing in Large, Familiar Domains Is Also Controlled by Specific Experiences 249
PART II CONSTRUCTIVE EVALUATION 252
VIII. Theme 5: Remembering Is Reconstruction, Not Retrieval 252
IX. Theme 6: The Constructive Nature of Experience 259
References 271
Chapter 7. GOALS, REPRESENTATIONS, AND STRATEGIES IN A CONCEPT ATTAINMENT TASK THE EPAM MODEL 276
I. Inter-Subject Differences and Commonalties in Performing Cognitive Tasks 276
II. Architecture and Learning in Task Performance 279
III. Strategy. Goals. Attention. and Task Representation in EPAM 282
References 300
Chapter 8. AT A LOSS FROM WORDS VERBAL OVERSHADOWING OF PERCEPTUAL MEMORIES 302
I. Three Premises of Verbal Overshadowing 304
II. The Modality Mismatch Assumption 308
III. The Availability Assumption 321
IV. The Recoding Interference Hypothesis 326
V. How Does Verbalization Disrupt Perceptual Memories? 329
VI. Closing Remarks 344
References 345
Index 352

Textauszug

Encoding Spatial Representations Through Nonvisually Guided Locomotion: Tests of Human Path Integration

Roberta L. Klatzky; Jack M. Loomis; Reginald G. Golledge

This chapter describes how people navigate within a space that they do not see, but learn about by walking through it. In doing so, they invoke a broad set of processes that include representing position and orientation with respect to spatial referents, updating the representation over the course of movement, planning routes, and executing those routes. These processes are components of navigation in general. Our particular focus on navigation without sight stems from a long-standing interest in the navigation abilities of the blind. The research described in this chapter is part of a larger project, which has the applied goal of developing a prototype navigation aid for blind people (Loomis, Golledge, & Klatzky, 1996). We emphasize throughout this work that the ability to navigate independently relies on an internal representation of spatial knowledge. Thus, research on navigation involves studying the learning, modification, and use of spatial representations. Our specific interest is in how these processes occur in the absence of visual information.

This chapter describes our efforts to (1) acquire basic data about human navigation without vision and (2) theoretically characterize representations and processes associated with it. In keeping with our emphasis on the acquisition of spatial representations, we are particularly interested in the process of encoding spatial knowledge. When people are asked to learn about a space by walking through it, in the absence of vision, they experience efferent commands and nonvisual sensory consequences of walking. These cues lead, we propose, to the encoding of an internal representation of the path that has been walked. This initial representation may be expanded by processes of spatial inference. Encoded and inferred knowledge provides the basis for goal-oriented responses. In this chapter we describe and evaluate an encoding-error model (Fujita, Klatzky, Loomis, & Golledge, 1993), which attributes systematic errors in navigation to errors in the process of encoding spatial information through locomotion.

We begin the chapter by defining essential concepts and reviewing background findings related to navigation. We then describe a substantial body of work that we have conducted on nonvisual navigation by blind and sighted, blindfolded individuals. These results are of interest in evaluating how well people can track their position in space without sight of landmarks, a process called path integration. We use the data to develop and test the encoding-error model.

I Navigational Concepts

Several concepts are illustrated in Fig. 1, and critical terms are defined in these paragraphs. We begin with the concept of a spatial representation. As a general formalism (Palmer, 1978), a representation can be viewed as a mapping from some “represented world” into a “representing world.” Each of these worlds has (1) elements and (2) interelement relations. In the case of a spatial representation, the source of the mapping—the represented world—includes a collection of points and objects within some region of space, and some set of relations among them. In particular, the relationships between the points and objects in the world are instantiated by their arrangement in physical space. The content of the representing world is some subset of the elements and relations in the represented world. Critical to the nature of a spatial representation is that at least some of its relational components convey information about the spatial relations in the represented world. (Other information, such as semantic associations among objects, might be linked to the spatial knowledge.)

Fig. 1 Definitions of navigational terms. An origin and reference direction are depicted, which allow the location of a landmark (box) to be specified. A navigator is also shown, following a track from the bottom to the center of the figure. At the final point, the navigator has turned, so that heading is not the same as course.

In a formal representation of space, it is customary to specify the locations of points by a coordinate system. In a plane, two common coordinate systems are Cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates. Both systems specify two parameters, which convey the relation between each point and an origin. From these, additional relations, such as interpoint distances, can be derived.

Within a spatial representation, certain locations may be associated with objects, which have distinctive features and/or labels. Depending on the scale of the representation relative to the size of an object, it might occupy a single point, a sequence of contiguous points, or an area. (We are accustomed to highway maps in which cities, roads, and lakes are so depicted, respectively.) The distinctive features that define objects can be sensed not only with vision, but by other modalities as well. They may be textures under foot, sounds, smells, and characteristic wind currents. The term landmark is sometimes used to refer to any salient location in the space, but it can also more specifically denote an object that is used by a navigator to determine his or her own location. The navigator is an object in the space whose position is variable, and to whom can be ascribed the goal of traveling within the space.

The points occupied by objects and navigators in the space are specified by the parameters of the coordinate system. In polar coordinates, a point can be said to be at angle ϕ relative to the reference axis and at distance ρ from the origin. But a navigator within the space does more than occupy a location; he or she also has an orientation in space and may have a path of movement through it. Thus, additional parameters are necessary to describe the situation at any time. One is the navigator’s heading, or direction of body orientation, specified as the angle between a sagittal plane through the navigator’s body and a reference direction. Because human navigators can look around while moving, it is sometimes useful to distinguish between the heading defined by the body and that defined by the head. Finally, if the navigator moves through space, the direction of local movement, expressed relative to the reference axis, is the course. A turn is a change in heading (or course).

Navigators can be positioned not only with respect to the origin but with respect to landmarks in the space, and landmarks can be positioned relative to one another. Two parameters used to describe the relative positions of two points in space are the bearing and distance between them. The distance is a metric relation, most commonly Euclidean but sometimes of another type such as city-block. The bearing from location 1 to location 2 is the angle between the reference direction and a line originating at location 1, directed toward location 2.

If a navigator’s body is oriented toward an object, the bearing of the object is the same as the navigator’s heading. To describe situations where the heading is different from the bearing, we label the difference as the relative bearing of the object. In order to move to an object in his or her spatial representation, a navigator must know the appropriate turn that would orient him or her to the object’s position, as well as the distance to travel. The desired turn is the difference between the navigator’s current heading and the bearing to the desired location; that is, the navigator should turn the value of the relative bearing.

As navigators move through space, they often wish to keep track of their position relative to other objects within it. Two means of doing so have been distinguished: landmark-based navigation and path integration (see Gallistel, 1990). For an example of landmark-based navigation, suppose a navigator knows that landmark A is located at Cartesian coordinates (x, y). Suppose, too, that the navigator can determine the distance (d) and bearing (ϕ) of Landmark A relative to his or her current position. Then the navigator’s Cartesian coordinates can be determined. The Cartesian coordinates can also be computed in a number of other ways, including use of the distances to three landmarks or the bearings to two landmarks.

Path integration (sometimes called dead reckoning) refers to updating position in space without reference to landmarks, by means of velocity and acceleration signals (for reviews in nonhuman species, see Etienne, Maurer, & Séguinot, 1996; Gallistel, 1990; Maurer & Séguinot, 1995). With both types of signals, the navigator updates position at some interval, such as at each footstep. For example, if the initial position is x meters and y meters from the origin along two orthogonal axes, and the current velocity along the directions specified by the two axes is m meters per footstep and n meters per footstep, respectively, then the position after one footstep will be (x + m, y + n). This calculation integrates velocity over time, in each orthogonal direction, to determine...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 20.11.1997
• Mitarbeit: Herausgeber (Serie): Douglas L. Medin
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Allgemeine Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Biopsychologie / Neurowissenschaften
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Klinische Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Pädagogische Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Verhaltenstherapie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Sprach- / Literaturwissenschaft ► Sprachwissenschaft
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Humanbiologie
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Zoologie
• ISBN-13: 9780080863887 / 9780080863887