Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language (eBook)

Harry A. Whitaker (Herausgeber)

eBook Download: PDF

2010 | 1. Auflage
632 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
9780080964997 (ISBN)

Infos

This volume descibes, in up-to-date terminology and authoritative interpretation, the field of neurolinguistics, the science concerned with the neural mechanisms underlying the comprehension, production and abstract knowledge of spoken, signed or written language. An edited anthology of 165 articles from the award-winning Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics 2nd edition, Encyclopedia of Neuroscience 4th Edition and Encyclopedia of the Neorological Sciences and Neurological Disorders, it provides the most comprehensive one-volume reference solution for scientists working with language and the brain ever published.

* Authoritative review of this dynamic field placed in an interdisciplinary context
* Approximately 165 articles by leaders in the field
* Compact and affordable single-volume format

Inhalt

Front Cover 1
Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language 4
Copyright Page 5
The Editor 6
Coordinating Editors 8
Contents 10
Subject Classification 16
Introduction 20
Contributors 22
List of Abbreviations 26
A 32
Agnosia 32
Further Reading 33
Agrammatism I, Process Approaches 34
Agrammatism in Comprehension 34
The Mapping Hypothesis 34
The Resource Limitation Hypothesis 35
The Timing Hypothesis 36
Agrammatism in Production 37
Variability of Symptoms 37
The Timing Hypothesis 38
The Ellipsis Hypothesis 39
Conclusion 39
Bibliography 33
Agrammatism II, Linguistic Approaches 40
Introduction 40
Linguistic Models of Agrammatism 40
Comprehension 41
The Trace-Deletion Hypothesis (TDH) 41
The Double-Dependency Hypothesis (DDH) 41
Production 42
Hagiwara's Model 42
Friedmann's Model 42
What Does the Study of Agrammatism Tell Us about Brains or about Language? 42
What Does Evidence Organized by Linguistic Models of Agrammatism Reveal about Brains? 42
What Does Evidence Organized by Linguistic Models of Agrammatism Reveal about Language? 43
Conclusion 44
Bibliography 44
Agrammatism 45
Interpretations 46
Causes and Anatomical Correlates 47
Further Reading 48
Agraphia 48
Further Reading 50
Alzheimer's Disease 50
Epidemiology and Genetics 50
Pathology 51
Pathogenesis 52
Diagnosis 52
Treatment 53
Further Reading 54
Amnesia, Functional 54
Introduction 54
Clinical Characteristics of the Patient with Functional Amnesia 55
The Clinical Picture of the Patient 55
Risk and Precipitating Factors 55
Clinical Course 56
Laboratory Tests 56
Differential Diagnosis 56
Neuropsychological Findings in Patients with Functional Amnesia 56
Retrograde Amnesia 57
Anterograde Amnesia 59
Etiology of Functional Amnesia 60
Evaluation and Treatment of the Patient with Functional Amnesia 60
Further Reading 61
Amnesia, Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory 61
Introduction 61
Functional Amnesia 61
Etiology of Neurological Amnesia 62
Anatomy 62
The Nature of Amnesia 62
Anterograde Amnesia 63
Retrograde Amnesia 63
Spatial Memory 64
Nondeclarative Memory 64
Summary 65
Further Reading 66
Relevant Websites 66
Amusia 66
Further Reading 67
Anatomical Asymmetries Versus Variability of Language Areas of the Brain 68
Introduction 68
Individual Variability 68
Overall Brain Volume 68
Gyral Patterns and Regional Variability 69
White Matter Tracts 69
Brain Asymmetries 69
Subcortical Asymmetries 70
White Matter Tract Asymmetries 70
Asymmetry in Nonhumans 70
Conclusions 70
Bibliography 50
Angular Gyrus Syndrome 71
Components of the Angular Gyrus Syndrome 72
Extrasylvian (Transcortical) Sensory Aphasia 72
Alexia with Agraphia (Parietal-Temporal Alexia) 72
Acalculia 72
Left-Right Confusion 72
Finger Agnosia 72
Gerstmann's Syndrome 72
Further Reading 73
Anomia 73
Anomia in Aphasia 73
Naming 75
Word Fluency 75
Anomic Aphasia 75
Anomia in Dementia 76
Anatomy of the Mental Lexicon 76
A Single Lexicon or Multiple Mental Representation of Names? 77
Further Reading 77
Anosognosia 77
Acknowledgments 79
Further Reading 80
Aphasia, Sudden and Progressive 80
Introduction 80
Clinical Examination 80
Aphasias of Cerebrovascular Origin 81
Wernicke's Aphasia 75
Broca's Aphasia 76
Global Aphasia 76
Conduction Aphasia 77
Nonfluent Transcortical Aphasia (Transcortical Motor Aphasia) 82
Fluent Transcortical Aphasia (Transcortical Sensory Aphasia) 82
Isolation Aphasia 82
Anomic Aphasia 82
Pure Word Deafness 82
Pure Alexia without Agraphia 82
Neurodegenerative Aphasia 83
Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis 83
Language in PPA 83
Pathophysiology 84
Neuropathology 84
Further Reading 84
Apraxia, Handedness and Language Laterality 85
Introduction 85
Definition 85
Testing for Apraxia 85
Subtypes of Apraxia 85
Prevalence 86
Cerebral Dominance for Motor Learning 86
Dissociation of Language and Praxis 87
Anatomical Correlates 87
Bibliography 87
Apraxia, Sensory System 88
Historical Background 88
Limb Apraxia Subtypes 88
LKA 88
IA 88
Conceptual Apraxia 89
IMA 89
Disconnection and Dissociation Apraxias 90
Outstanding Issues in Diagnosis of Apraxia Subtype 90
Relevance of Recognition and Imitation Deficits for Diagnosis of IMA versus IA or Conceptual Apraxia 90
Relationship of Object Knowledge to Gesture Representations 91
Functional Implications of Limb Apraxia 91
IMA in View of Recent Developments in the Motor Control Literature 91
Imitation 91
Object-Related Action 92
Spatiomotor Frames of Reference for Action 92
Feedforward and Feedback-Driven Processes in IMA 92
Treatment of Limb Apraxia 92
Testing for Limb Apraxia 93
Conclusions 93
Further Reading 93
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 94
Subtypes, Impairments, and Comorbidities 94
Assessment and Diagnosis 95
Prevalence and Developmental Course 95
Risk and Etiological Factors 95
Neurobiological Underpinnings 95
Prevention and Intervention 95
Conclusion 96
Further Reading 96
Auditory Cortex Structure and Circuitry 97
Introduction 97
Organization of Auditory Cortex 97
Thalamic Input 97
Area Parcellation 98
Connections of Auditory Cortex 99
Local Structure of Primary Auditory Cortex 99
Interconnections between Areas of Auditory Cortex 99
Cortical Projections Beyond Auditory Cortex 100
Projections to Subcortical Nuclei 100
Other Circuitry 101
Organization of Specialized Auditory Cortex: Echolocating Bats 101
Physiology of Unspecialized Auditory Cortex 101
Outstanding Questions 102
Further Reading 103
Autism and Asperger Syndrome, A Spectrum of Disability 103
Language in ASD and Asperger's Syndrome 104
Pragmatic Language 105
Prosody 105
Verbal Semantic Processing 105
Syntactic Aspect of Language 105
Theoretical Understanding of Autism 105
Treatment and Prognosis 106
Bibliography 66
B 108
Balint's Syndrome 108
Historical Perspective 108
Simultanagnosia 108
Ocular Apraxia 109
Optic Ataxia 109
Presentation and Etiology 109
Conclusion 110
Acknowledgments 110
Further Reading 110
Behavior, Neural Basis of 110
Frontal Subcortical Circuits 112
Limbic System 113
Neurochemistry 114
Clinical Syndromes 114
Conclusion 114
Further Reading 115
Behavior, Neuropathology of 115
Neuropathological Changes in the Elderly Human Brain 116
Neuron Numbers 116
Dendritic Changes 116
Axonal and Synaptic Changes 116
Cell Body Changes 116
Alzheimer's Disease 116
NFTs 117
Amyloid Plaques 117
Synaptic Changes 117
Granulovacuolar Bodies 117
Hirano Bodies 117
Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration 117
Dementia with Parkinsonism 118
Parkinson's Disease with Dementia 118
Diffuse Lewy Body Disease 118
Lewy Body Variant of AD 118
Progressive Supranuclear Palsy 118
Corticobasal Degeneration 118
Dementia Pugilistica 118
Vascular Dementia 119
Multi-infarct Dementia 119
Binswanger's Disease 119
Lacunar State 119
Cadasil 119
Further Reading 119
Bilingualism and Aphasia 119
Bilingualism and the Brain 120
Types of Bilingual Aphasias and Patterns of Recovery 120
Bilingual Aphasia Assessment 121
Rehabilitation 121
Conclusion 122
Bibliography 122
Brain Asymmetry, Evolution 123
Behavioral Traits: Language and Handedness 123
Structural Asymmetries 123
Petalias and Related Asymmetries 123
Sylvian Fissure and Related Asymmetries 124
Central Sulcus and Related Asymmetries 125
Ventricular Asymmetries 125
Tissue Component Asymmetries 125
Determining Factors of Brain Asymmetries 126
Heredity versus Environment 126
Fetal Orientation 127
Hormones 127
Gender-Specific Asymmetries 127
Functional Adaptation 128
Aberrant Asymmetries and Disease 128
Evolutionary Origins of Anatomical Asymmetries 130
Brain Size Expansion 130
Left-Hemispheric Dominance for Language 130
Left-Hemispheric Dominance for Handedness 130
Brain Asymmetries in Nonhuman Species 130
Acknowledgments 131
Further Reading 131
Relevant Websites 122
Brain Damage, Functional Reorganization 131
Introduction 131
Homologous Area Adaptation 132
Cross-Modal Reassignment 132
Potentiation of Topographic Representations 133
Compensatory Masquerade 133
Discussion 133
Further Reading 134
C 136
Category-Specific Knowledge 136
Principles of Organization 136
Modality-Specific Hypotheses 136
Domain-Specific Hypotheses 136
Feature-Based Hypotheses 136
Clues from Cognitive Neuropsychology 137
Explaining Category-Specific Semantic Deficits 138
Clues from Functional Neuroimaging 139
Conclusion 139
Acknowledgments 140
Bibliography 140
Cerebellum, Clinical Pathology 141
Introduction 141
Motor Symptoms 142
Muscle Tone 142
Gordon Holmes sign 142
Pendulousness 137
Postural asymmetries 142
Pendular tendon reflexes 143
Impairment of Motor Coordination 143
Heel-knee-shin/toe square-drawing tests 143
Finger-nose-finger test 143
Rebound 143
Finger-to-finger and finger-to-thumb tests 143
Rapid, alternating movements 143
Tremor 143
Intention or kinetic tremor 143
Postural tremor 144
Palatal tremor 144
Oculomotor Disturbances 144
Equilibrium and Stance 144
Gait 144
Speech 144
Dysarthria 144
Cerebellar mutism 145
Agrammatism 145
Verbal fluency 145
Cognition and Emotion 145
Cerebellar Role in Motor Learning 145
Localization: Body Maps and Motor Modes 145
Sensorimotor Maps 145
Localization of Cognitive Functions 146
Further Reading 140
Classical Tests for Speech and Language Disorders 146
Introduction 146
Reference Models for the Assessment of Speech and Language Impairment 147
Classical Tests for the Assessment of Aphasia 148
Bedside and Screening Tests 148
Comprehensive Examinations and Aphasia Batteries 148
Tests for the Assessment of Specific Aspects of Language 149
The Assessment of Functional Communication 149
Classical Tests for the Assessment of Speech and Language Impairment in Children 149
Screening Tests 150
Comprehensive Examinations and Batteries 150
Tests for Specific Aspects of Language 150
The Assessment of Reading and Writing 151
Classical Tests for the Assessment of Speech and Language Impairment in Special Populations 151
Conclusion 152
Bibliography 152
Cognition in Aging and Age-Related Disease 153
Introduction 153
Cognitive Declines with Healthy Aging 153
Domain-General Theories of Cognitive Aging 153
Sensory deficits 153
Inhibition 153
Speed of processing 154
Domain-Specific Theories of Cognitive Aging 154
Word-finding difficulties and transmission deficits 154
Contextual memory and associative binding deficits 155
Preserved Cognitive Function with Healthy Aging 155
Crystallized Intelligence 155
Emotion Regulation 155
Neural Changes with Healthy Aging 156
Changes in Prefrontal Cortex 156
Medial Temporal Lobe Changes 156
Changes in Emotion Processing Regions 156
Mild Cognitive Impairment 157
Alzheimer's Disease 157
Cognitive Changes in AD 157
Episodic memory 157
Semantic memory 157
Working memory and executive function 157
Neural Changes in AD 158
Neural Changes in Later-Stage AD 158
Individual Differences in Aging 158
Further Reading 152
Cognition, An Overview of Neuroimaging Techniques 159
Anatomical Techniques 159
Functional Techniques 159
Classes of Functional Neuroimaging Techniques 159
Direct measures of neural activity: EEG and MEG 159
Indirect measures of neural activity: PET 160
Indirect measures of neural activity: fMRI 161
Related Techniques 161
Optical Brain Imaging 161
Trade-Offs between Temporal and Spatial Resolution 161
Advantages and Limitations of Neuroimaging Techniques 162
Contributions to the Study of Cognition 162
Further Reading 163
Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia 163
Why Study Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia? 163
Article Overview 164
Cognitive Endophenotypes 164
Executive Function Deficits 164
Inhibition 165
Task Switching 165
Working Memory 166
Response Monitoring 166
Declarative Memory 167
Thought, Language, and Semantic Memory Disturbances 167
Challenges and Potential Confounds in the Study of Cognition 167
Heterogeneity 167
Variability 168
Amotivation 168
Medications 168
Generalized Deficit 168
Are There Fundamental Deficits That Give Rise to Widespread Cognitive Disturbance? 168
Attention 169
Deficient Automation 169
Context Processing 169
Promising Advances in the Study of Cognition 169
Imaging Genetics 169
Neuroimaging Advances 170
Further Reading 170
Relevant Website 171
Cognitive Impairment 171
A Model of Cognition 171
The Model in Action 171
Level 1: Arousal and Activation 171
Level 2: Content of Activated Consciousness 171
Level 3: Prefrontal Cortex and Supervisory Control 172
Level 4: Self-Awareness and Metacognition 173
Conclusion 173
Further Reading 174
Consciousness, Neural Basis of Conscious Experience 174
Basic Definitions and Concepts 174
Physical Nature System Property
Reports of Conscious Experience versus Behavioral Detection 175
Do Animals Have Conscious Experience? 175
Are Computers Conscious? 176
Studies of Neural Basis 176
Effects of Cerebral Lesions 176
Regional Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 176
Electrophysiological Stimulation and Recording 177
Time Factors in Conscious and Unconscious Mental Functions 177
Neural Delay for Sensory Experience 177
Neural Delay for Intention to Act 177
'Time-On' Theory for Conscious versus Unconscious Functions 178
Unity of Conscious Experience 178
A testable field theory 178
Further Reading 178
D 180
Deafness 180
Assessment of Hearing 180
Causes of Impaired Hearing 180
Sites and Types of Abnormality 181
Sensorineural Impairment 182
Animal Models for Deafness 183
The Cochlear Prosthesis 183
Further Reading 184
Delirium and Language 184
Diagnostic Criteria and Differential Diagnosis 185
Communication and Language in Delirium 186
Conclusion 186
Bibliography 184
Dementia and Language 187
Introduction 187
Diagnostic Criteria and Differential Diagnosis 188
Language Disorders in the Major Forms of Dementia 188
Language Disorders in Dementia of the Alzheimer Type 188
Language Disorders in Vascular Dementia 190
Language Disorders in Dementia with Lewy Bodies 190
Language Disorders in Frontotemporal Lobe Disease 191
Language Disorders in Frontotemporal Dementia 191
Language Disorders in Semantic Dementia 191
Language Disorders in Progressive Nonfluent Aphasia 192
Conclusions 192
Bibliography 192
Dichotic Listening Studies of Brain Asymmetry 193
Dichotic Stimuli 193
The Dichotic Test Situation 194
DL Paradigms 188
The Right-Ear Advantage 194
Attentional Factors 195
Neuroanatomical Basis 195
Validity and Reliability 196
Calculation of DL Scores 197
Arousal and Activation 197
Developmental Effects 197
Sex Differences and Handedness Effects 197
Clinical Populations 198
Nonverbal Stimuli and Lateralization of Affect 198
Further Reading 192
Diffusion and Perfusion Imaging 199
Dynamic Contrast Perfusion-Weighted Imaging 199
Use of PWI and DWI to Identify Neural Bases of Lexical Processing 199
Use of PWI and DWI to Reevaluate Hypotheses about Brain-Behavior Relationships 200
Arterial Spin Labeling Perfusion Imaging 201
Summary and Future Directions 201
Bibliography 201
Direct Electrical Stimulation of Language Cortex 202
Introduction 202
Description of the Technique 202
Comparison to other Techniques 204
Selected Findings with Cortical Stimulation Technique 204
Correspondence with the Classic Functional-Neuroanatomic Model 204
Lesion Effects and Aphasia 204
Divergence from the Classic Neurologic Model 191
Discreteness of Representation 205
Individual Variability within Anterior and Posterior Language Areas 206
Language Representation Outside of Classical Language Regions 206
Different Stimulation Sites for Different Language Tasks 206
Cognitive Efficiency and Precision of Localization 207
Electrical Stimulation and Subcortical Structures 207
Challenges and Future Directions 208
References 209
Further Reading 209
Dyslexia and Dysgraphia, Developmental 210
Genetics 210
Brain Structure and Function 211
Dysgraphia 211
Research on Dyslexia and Dysgraphia 212
Interventions - Dyslexia and Dysgraphia 213
Acknowledgments 214
Bibliography 214
Dyslexia, Neurodevelopmental Basis 215
Introduction 215
Behavioral Profile of Developmental Dyslexia 216
Definition of Developmental Dyslexia 216
Cognitive Characteristics of Developmental Dyslexia 216
Sensorimotor Characteristics of Developmental.Dyslexia 217
Biological Basis of Developmental Dyslexia 218
Brain-Based Evidence 218
Genetic Evidence 219
Dyslexia in Different Languages and Orthographies 219
Comorbid Disorders 219
Developmental Dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 219
Developmental Dyslexia and SLI 220
Therapeutic Approaches to Developmental Dyslexia 220
Summary 221
Further Reading 221
Relevant Website 214
E 222
Event-Related Potentials in the Study of Language 222
Introduction 222
Language-Related Components and their Functional Significance 222
The N100: An Exogenous Component with Linguistic Functions? 223
Prelexical Expectations: The Phonological Mapping Negativity 223
Lexico-Semantic Integration: The N400 Component 225
Left Anterior Negativities (LANs) and P600s in Morpho-Syntactic Processing 226
Early and Other Left Anterior Negativities 227
Working Memory 229
Scalp Distribution of LAN Components 229
P600/Syntactic Positive Shift 229
Verb Argument Structure Violations and Thematic Roles 230
Interactions Between Syntax, Semantics, Discourse, and Prosody 231
Prosodic Phrasing: The Closure Positive Shift 233
Challenges and Future Directions 233
References 233
Further Reading 234
F 236
Fluency and Voice, Disorders of 236
Definition 236
Clinical Features of Stuttering 236
Genetics 236
Brain Imaging 237
Theories of Stuttering 238
Acquired Stuttering 241
Conclusion 242
Acknowledgments 242
Bibliography 242
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Research on Language 243
Introduction 243
Recognizing Auditory Input as Speech 244
Word Representation: Form and Meaning 244
From Words to Sentences: Syntactic Processing 246
From Words to Sentences: Semantic Processing of Sentences 247
From Sentences to Discourse 248
Challenges and Future Directions 249
References 250
Further Reading 250
H 252
Handedness and Cerebral Laterality 252
Further Reading 254
Hemispheric Specialization and Cognition 255
Hemispheric Differences in Cognition 255
Discovery of Hemispheric Differences in Cognition 255
Evidence from Patients with Unilateral Brain Damage 255
Evidence from Split-Brain Patients 255
Perceptual Asymmetries in Neurologically Intact Individuals 255
Neuroimaging Studies of Hemispheric Specialization 256
Asymmetries Related to Emotion and Emotional Processing 256
Models of Hemispheric Specialization 256
Origins of Hemispheric Asymmetry 257
Developmental Issues and Hemispheric Specialization 258
The Effect of Handedness 258
Interhemispheric Integration 258
Summary 259
Further Reading 259
I 262
Imaging Brain Lateralization 262
Integrating Semantics 262
Discourse-Related Studies 263
Investigating the Pragmatics of Communication 264
Attributing Mental States 264
Investigating Figurative Language 265
Bibliography 266
Imaging Brain Lateralization, Words, Sentences, and Influencing Factors in Healthy, Pathological, and Special Populations... 266
Imaging Single Word Lateralization 267
Imaging Sentence Lateralization 269
Imaging Hemispheric Lateralization in Patients 270
Defining Hemispheric Lateralization for Presurgical Patients 271
Language Lateralization in Other Patients 271
Imaging Special Populations 271
Imaging Gender 273
Imaging Handedness 273
Bibliography 273
Intelligence 275
Fundamental Concepts 276
Heredity and Environment 276
Products of Collaboration 276
Judgment 277
Emotions 277
History of Neural Correlation 277
History of IQ Tests 278
Neuroanatomy 278
Conclusions 279
Interhemispheric Interaction in the Lateralized Brain 279
Introduction 279
Functional Hemispheric Asymmetry 280
Advantages and Challenges of Hemispheric Asymmetry 281
Mechanisms of Interhemispheric Interaction 282
Costs and Benefits of Interhemispheric Interaction 283
Mixing Stimuli that are Processed in Different Cortical Areas 284
Bihemispheric Redundancy Gain 284
Individual Variation 285
Variation Across the Life Span 285
Cognition and Memory 285
Cognitive Deficits and Emotional Disorders 286
Gender 286
Challenges and Future Directions 287
References 287
Further Reading 288
L 290
Landau Kleffner Syndrome 290
Definition and Epidemiology 290
Clinical Manifestations 290
Epileptic Manifestations 291
EEG Findings 291
Etiology and Pathogenesis 292
Laboratory and Radiological Studies 292
Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis 292
Therapy 293
General Principles 293
Antiepileptic Drugs 293
Corticosteroids and Adrenocorticotrophin Hormone 293
Intravenous Immunoglobulin 293
Surgery 294
Speech Therapy and Behavioral Intervention 294
Evolution and Prognosis 294
Further Reading 294
Language and Discourse 295
Discourse in Normal Cognitive Aging 295
Discourse of the Dementias 295
Alzheimer's Disease 295
Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD) 295
Discourse in Focal Neurological Injuries: Left Versus Right Hemisphere-Lesioned Patients 296
Traumatic Brain Injury in Childhood 296
Conclusion 296
Further Reading 296
Language Development 297
Introduction 297
Overview of Early Language Development 297
First Words 297
Linguistic structure 297
Production 297
Perception 298
Morphology 298
Production 298
Perception 298
First Word Combinations 298
Gradual Development of Grammatical Constructions Involving Phrases 299
Question Formation 299
Verb Complement Clauses 299
Relative Clauses 300
Overregularization 300
Nativism and Domain Specificity 300
Recovery from Errors and Negative Evidence 301
Cues to Structure 302
Further Reading 302
Language Disorders, Aphasia 303
Introduction 303
Approaches 303
Functional-Clinical Aphasia Syndromes 304
Broca's Aphasia 304
Wernicke's Aphasia 304
Conduction Aphasia 305
Anomic Aphasia 305
Global Aphasia 305
Single-Modality Functional-Clinical Aphasia Syndromes 305
Apraxia of Speech 305
Alexia with Agraphia 305
Pure Word Deafness 306
Agraphia 306
Alexia 306
Transcortical Aphasias 306
Transcortical Sensory Aphasia 307
Mixed Transcortical Aphasia 307
Neurolinguistic Structures 307
Phonological Disorders 308
Morphological Disorders 308
Syntactic Disorders 308
Semantic Disorders 308
Narrative Disorders 308
Alexias 308
Deep Alexia 308
Phonological Alexia 309
Surface Alexia 309
Agraphic Disorders 309
Conclusion 309
Further Reading 309
Language Following Congenital Disorders (not SLI) 310
Neurodevelopmental Disorders 310
Language Learning in Infancy and Toddlerhood 310
Precursors of Expressive Language in Developmental Disorders 311
Word Comprehension and Production and Early Grammatical Development 311
Later Language Learning 312
Williams Syndrome 312
Down Syndrome 313
Autistic Spectrum Disorders 313
Neurodevelopmental Disorders versus Acquired Disorders 313
Acquired Language Disorders: Learning Language after Early Brain Injury 313
Lesion Location and Language Outcome 313
Lesion Location and Language Acquisition in Infants 314
Neural Plasticity in Response to Focal Lesions 314
Conclusions 315
Further Reading 315
Language in Aged Persons 316
Introduction 316
Theories of Cognitive Aging 316
The Nature of Language Processing 316
Age-Related Change in Language Processing 317
Language Comprehension and Memory 317
Word processing 317
Syntactic processing 317
Textbase processing 318
Situation model 318
Discourse structures and context 319
Recap 319
Language Production 319
Conclusion 320
Further Reading 320
Language, Auditory Processes 321
Introduction 321
Unique Neural Mechanisms for Processing Language Acoustically? 322
Segmental Processing 322
Suprasegmental (Intonational) Processing 325
Future Directions 326
Further Reading 326
Language, Cortical Processes 327
Neural Structures Involved in Language 327
Models of Organization of the Brain for Language Processing 328
Conclusion 330
Further Reading 330
Language, Learning Impairments 330
Language Abilities of Children with SLI 331
Theoretical Accounts 332
Classification and Labels 333
Neurobiological Correlates 334
Genetics and Heritability 334
SLI or Dyslexia? 334
An Implicit Learning Impairment? 335
Further Reading 335
Lateralization of Language across the Life Span 336
Introduction 336
Brain Development 337
Brain Anatomy 337
Electrophysiological Evidence 338
Behavioral Evidence 338
Clinical Evidence 339
Changes Associated with Aging 339
Normal Aging 340
Clinical Evidence 340
Interpretive Complexities 340
General Problems in Studying Life-Span Development 340
Problems Related to the Study of Language Lateralization 341
Challenges and Future Directions 342
References 343
Further Reading 344
Lexical Impairments Following Brain Injury 344
Further Reading 347
M 348
Memory Disorders 348
Varieties of Amnesic Syndrome 348
Korsakoff Syndrome 348
Herpes Encephalitis 348
Severe Hypoxia 349
Vascular Disorder 349
Head Injury 349
Transient Global Amnesia 350
Transient Epileptic Amnesia 350
Summary of Amnesic Syndrome 350
Episodic Memory Deficits 350
Explicit and Implicit Memory 351
Recall and Recognition Memory 351
Remembering and Knowing Recollection and Familiarity
Semantic Memory Deficits 352
Semantic Dementia 352
New Learning of Semantic Material in Amnesia 352
Retrograde Amnesia 353
Temporal Gradients 353
Focal Retrograde Amnesia 354
Confabulation and Memory Distortion 355
Summary 355
Further Reading 356
Relevant Websites 357
Memory, Autobiographical 357
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory 357
The Episodic/Semantic Distinction within Autobiographical Memory 357
Strategic Retrieval Processes in Autobiographical Remembering 358
Autobiographical Retrieval across the Life Span 358
Autobiographical Memory in Patients with Neuropsychological Disorders 358
Contributions of the Medial Temporal, Diencephalic, and Basal Forebrain Regions 358
Prefrontal Contributions to Autobiographical Amnesia 359
Psychogenic Retrograde Amnesia in Autobiographical Memory 359
Functional Imaging of Autobiographical Remembering 359
Assessment of Autobiographical Memory 359
Further Reading 360
Memory, Episodic 360
Further Reading 362
Memory, Explicit/Implicit 363
Explicit Memory 363
Tasks 363
Biological Bases of Explicit Memory 363
Implicit Memory 363
Implicit Memory Tasks 364
Biological Bases of Implicit Memory 364
Memory Impairment in Clinical Populations 364
Life Span and Risk of Memory Impairment 364
Further Reading 365
Memory, Semantic 365
Introduction 365
Semantic Memory and the Medial Temporal Lobe Memory System 357
Cortical Lesions and the Breakdown of Semantic Memory 358
Object Concepts 366
Semantic Dementia and the General Disorders of Semantic Memory 366
Category-Specific Disorders of Semantic Memory 367
Models of category-specific disorders 367
Functional neuroanatomy of category-specific disorders 368
Organization of Conceptual Knowledge: Neuroimaging Evidence 368
Object Knowledge Is Organized by Sensory and Motor-Based Properties 368
Neural Networks for Animate Entities and Tools 369
Linking Category-Related Representations to Sensory and Motor Properties 370
Further Reading 370
Memory, Short Term and Working 371
Introduction 371
Definition 371
Historical Backdrop 371
Current State of Working Memory Research 371
Visual Working Memory 371
Tactile Working Memory 374
Auditory Working Memory 374
Multiple Encoding in Working Memory 374
Working Memory and Prefrontal Cortex 376
Conclusion 377
Further Reading 377
Memory, Spatial 377
Spatial Memory and Spatial Cognition 377
Localization and Function of Spatial Memory 378
Neural Encoding of Spatial Memory 378
Evidence from Animal Models of Spatial Memory 379
Hormonal Influences 380
Effects of Aging 381
Further Reading 381
Mental Retardation 382
History 382
Epidemiology 371
Etiology 371
Genetics 371
Conclusion 385
Further Reading 385
Mental Status Testing 385
History 385
Psychiatric Status 386
Appearance 386
Attitude 386
Motor Activity/Behavior 386
Mood 386
Affect 386
Thought Process 387
Thought Content 387
Cognitive Status 387
Attention 388
Orientation 388
Language 388
Construction 388
Memory 388
Higher Cognitive Functioning 389
Conclusion 389
Further Reading 389
Morphology, Disorders of 389
Introduction 389
Types of Morphological Errors in Aphasia 390
Do Patterns of Morphological Impairment Differ across Languages? 391
What Do Morphological Deficits in Aphasia Tell Us about Normal Morphological Processing? 391
Do Patterns of Morphological Impairment Differ across Aphasic Syndromes? 393
Is There a Morphology Center in the Brain? 394
Bibliography 394
N 398
Neuropragmatics, Disorders and Neural Systems 398
Introduction 398
Pragmatic Disorders in Adult Clinical Populations 398
Discourse 398
Non-literal Language and Figurative Language 399
Indirect Requests 399
Other Non-literal and Figurative Language 399
Mentalizing or Mindreading 400
ToM and Dementia 400
ToM and Schizophrenia 400
ToM and RHD 400
Summary 401
Explaining Linguistic Pragmatic Impairments in Clinical Populations 401
Neural Systems Underlying Pragmatic Abilities 402
Neural Systems in Discourse Processing 402
Neural Systems in Non-literal and Figurative Language 402
Neural Systems in Mindreading (ToM) 406
Summary 406
Challenges and Future Directions 408
Acknowledgments 409
References 409
Further Reading 410
Neuropsychological Testing 410
Introduction 410
Historical Perspective 410
The Basic Premise of Neuropsychological Testing 411
What Comprises a Neuropsychological Evaluation? 411
Selection of Tests 412
The Clinical Interview 412
Test-Taking Effort 412
Premorbid Level of Cognitive Functioning 414
Analysis of Test Performance 415
Emotional, Behavioral, and Personality Testing 415
Final Interpretations and Recommendations 415
Repeat Neuropsychological Testing 416
Common Referral Questions for Adults 416
Common Referral Questions for Children 417
Conclusions 418
Further Reading 418
P 420
Parkinson's Disease and Language 420
Introduction to Parkinson's Disease 420
Language in Parkinson's Disease 420
Effect of Neurosurgical Treatments on Language 422
Bibliography 422
PET Research of Language 423
Introduction 423
PET Versus fMRI - Some Methodological Issues 423
Crucial PET Findings 424
Language Comprehension 424
Hemispheric Differences 425
Anterior-Posterior Differences 426
Language Production 427
Propositional Language Production 427
Broca's Area for Speech and Sign Language 428
Challenges and Future Directions 429
Acknowledgments 430
References 430
Further Reading 431
Phonological Impairments, Sublexical 432
Introduction 432
Functional Metabolic Mosaics 432
Recent Linguistic Aphasiological Studies of Sublexical Units 434
Recovery from the Production of Neologisms 437
Conclusions 439
Bibliography 439
Phonological, Lexical, Syntactic, and Semantic Disorders in Children 440
Brain Measures Common to the Study of Language Disabilities 440
Autism 441
General Brain Imaging Results for Autism 422
Social - Brain Difference and Autism 441
Phonology and Autism 441
Semantics and Autism 441
Dyslexia 442
General Brain Imaging Results for Dyslexia 442
Phonology and Dyslexia 442
Semantics and Dyslexia 443
Reading and Dyslexia 443
Down Syndrome 443
General Brain Imaging Results for DS 444
Phonology and DS 444
Semantics and DS 444
Syntax and DS 444
Specific Language Impairment 444
Phonology and SLI 445
Semantics and SLI 445
William's Syndrome 445
Anatomical Aspects of WS 445
Semantics and WS 445
Phonology and WS 446
Syntax and WS 446
Summary and Conclusion 446
Acknowledgments 446
Bibliography 446
Phonology 449
Disorders 449
Conclusion 450
Further Reading 450
Primary Progressive Aphasia in Nondementing Adults 451
Terminology 451
Clinical Features 451
Linguistic and Neuropsychological Features 451
Differential Diagnosis 452
Laboratory Testing 452
Radiological Features 452
Treatment 453
Prognosis and Complications 453
Bibliography 453
Procedural Learning in Humans 454
Multiple Memory Systems 454
Types of Procedural Learning 454
Motor Skill Learning 454
Sequence learning 454
Rotary pursuit 455
Mirror tracing 455
Motor adaptation 455
Perceptual Skill Learning 455
Mirror reading 455
Perceptual categorization 455
Visual prototype learning 456
Cognitive Skill Learning 457
Category learning 457
Probabilistic classification learning 458
Artificial grammar learning 458
Tower puzzle tasks 459
Characteristics of Procedural Learning 459
Automaticity 459
Awareness 459
Long-Term Retention 459
Neural Bases of Procedural Learning 460
Striatum 460
Cerebellum 460
Cerebral Cortex 461
Conclusion 461
Further Reading 439
Proper and Common Names, Impairments 461
Bibliography 464
Prosopagnosia 465
Historical Background 465
How Selective is Prosopagnosia? 465
Neuroanatomy 466
Conclusion 466
Further Reading 467
R 468
Reading and Acquired Dyslexia 468
Processes Involved in Reading 468
Acquired Dyslexias 469
Peripheral Dyslexias 469
Central Dyslexias 469
Acknowledgments 470
Further Reading 470
Recovery of Language after Stroke or Trauma in Adults 470
Introduction 470
Aphasia: Localized and Distributed 471
Recovery: A Continuous Phenomenon 472
A Framework for Understanding Recovery 472
The Aphasia Recovery Curve 473
Neurologic Factors in Aphasia Recovery 474
Mechanisms of Recovery 474
The Role of the Contralateral Cortex in Recovery 475
Anagraphic Factors in Aphasia Recovery 477
The Role of Rehabilitation in Recovery 477
Conclusion 479
Bibliography 479
Remediation of Language Disorders in Adults 482
Taxonomy of Language Remediation Approaches 482
Biological Approach to Language Remediation 484
Treatment Efficacy and Effectiveness 484
Bibliography 484
S 486
Sensory Aging, Hearing 486
Presbycusis 486
Causes 486
Prevalence 486
Research Issues 487
Anatomy and Physiology 487
Outer Ear and Middle Ear 487
Inner Ear 487
Auditory Nerve 488
Perception 488
Psychoacoustics 488
Absolute auditory thresholds 488
Frequency selectivity and discrimination 489
Loudness and intensity discrimination 489
Temporal processing 490
Speech Processing 490
Interactions between Auditory and Cognitive Processing 491
Rehabilitation 491
Further Reading 491
Sentence Comprehension 491
Introduction 491
Ambiguity Resolution 493
Complex Sentence Interpretation 494
Referentially Dependent Expressions and Links to Discourse Representations 494
Sentence Comprehension Methodologies 495
Further Reading 496
Sentence Production 497
Introduction 497
Initial Insights: Evidence from Speech Errors 497
The Move to the Laboratory 499
Scope of Planning 499
Accessibility Effects 499
Grammatical Agreement 500
Syntactic Priming 500
The Separation of Words and Syntax 501
From the Lab to the Wild 501
Corpora 501
Nonverbal Devices 501
Communicating Discourse Properties 502
The Neuroscience of Sentence Production 502
Further Reading 502
Relevant Website 503
Sign Language, Disorders of 503
Sign Language Breaks Down by Linguistic Levels 503
Parkinson's Disease: Disruption of Phonetics 503
Aphasia: Disruption of Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics 504
Phonology 504
Morphology 504
Syntax 505
Semantics 505
Right Hemisphere Damage: Disruption of Discourse 506
Sign Language and Spoken Language 506
Bibliography 491
Speech Disorders, Overview 507
Further Reading 508
Speech Impairments in Neurodegenerative Diseases/Psychiatric Illnesses 508
Recording and Data Processing Equipment 509
Neurobiology of Speech Production in Common Neurodegenerative Disorders 509
Speech and Voice Acoustic Characteristics in Neurodegenerative Diseases 509
Parkinson Disease 509
Huntington Disease 510
Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (Steele-Richardson-Olszewski Syndrome) 510
Multiple Sclerosis 511
Acoustic Speech Characteristics in Psychiatric Diseases 511
Schizophrenia 511
Major Depression 512
The Clinical Utility and Application of Speech and Voice Acoustical Analyses 512
Bibliography 496
Speech Processes in Dysarthria 513
Bibliography 502
Speech Production, Adult 516
Introduction 516
Vocal Tract Dynamics 517
Measures of Muscle Output 517
Methods and Studies of Speech Kinematics 517
X-Ray Tracking of Orofacial Movements 517
Orofacial Magnetometry 517
Optical Three-Dimensional Tracking of the Face 518
Tracking Tongue Movements 518
Ultrasonic Imaging of the Tongue 518
Tracking Velar and Laryngeal Movements 518
Velopharynx 519
Laryngeal Kinematics 519
Videokymography 520
Laryngeal Aerodynamics 520
Chest Wall Kinematics 521
Magnetometry 521
Functional Neural Systems for Speech Motor Control 521
Further Reading 523
Sturge-Weber-Dimitri Syndrome and Language 524
Bibliography 503
Synesthesia and Language 526
Colored Graphemes 526
Gustatory Phonemes 527
Structure versus Meaning 528
Semantic Categories as Synesthetic Inducers 529
Bibliography 530
Relevant Websites 523
T 532
The Intracarotid Amobarbital Test (Wada Test) and Complementary Procedures to Evaluate Language Before Epilepsy Surgery 532
Introduction 532
Historical Background 532
Current Clinical use of the IAT 532
Rationale Underlying the IAT Procedure 533
Components of the IAT Procedure 534
Problems and Considerations in IAT Protocol Administration and Interpretation 535
Unilateral versus Bilateral IAT 535
Drugs and Administration Methods 535
Determination of Adequacy of Anesthesia and Timing of Stimulus Presentation 536
Criteria to Establish Hemispheric Language Dominance 536
IAT in Pediatric Populations 536
Validation and Reliability Studies 537
Supplementary and Alternative Techniques for Establishing Language Lateralization 537
Challenges and Future Directions 539
References 539
Further Reading 540
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) as a Tool for Studying Language 540
Introduction 540
Assessing Hemispheric Specialization for Language with TMS 541
High-Frequency rTMS 541
Low-Frequency rTMS 542
Single-Pulse TMS and EMG 542
Summary 542
Different Effects of TMS on Task Performance: Posterior Temporal Cortex and Picture Naming 543
TMS Studies of Semantic and Phonological Processing in LIFG 545
Speech Perception and the Motor System 545
Representation of Actions and Verbs in the Motor System and Frontal Cortex 546
TMS Studies in Patients with Aphasia 547
Challenges and Future Directions 548
References 548
Further Reading 549
Transient Global Amnesia 549
Further Reading 550
Turner´s Syndrome 551
Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Aspects 551
Neurocognitive Profile 551
TS Psychosocial Profile 552
Conclusions, Limitations, and Future Directions 553
Further Reading 553
V 554
Visual Associative Memory 554
Associative Memory in Vision: An Elementary Model for Declarative Memory Networks 554
Neuronal Correlates of Associative Memory in the Monkey Inferior Temporal Cortex 554
Inferior Temporal Neurons Establishing Visual Associative Links 554
Forward Processing of Long-Term Associative Memory 555
Retrieval Signaling in Visual Association Memory 557
Two Types of Sustained Activities in the Delay Period 557
Active Maintenance of Associative Mnemonic Signaling in the Monkey Inferior Temporal Cortex 558
Global Network of Memory Retrieval 558
Automatic Retrieval: Backward Spreading of the Memory-Retrieval Signal in the Temporal Cortex 558
Active Retrieval: Top-Down Signal from the Prefrontal Cortex in Executive Control of Memory Retrieval 560
Further Reading 562
W 564
Word Learning 564
Defining the Problem 564
Word Learning across Development 565
Word Learning as Induction 566
Constraints and Biases on Hypothesized Meanings 566
Social Cues to Reference 567
Sentential Contexts as Cues to Word Meanings 568
Final Words 568
Further Reading 569
Word Production 569
Introduction 569
The Functional Architecture of Word Production 570
Conceptual Preparation 570
Lexical Processing 571
Phonological Processing 572
Self-Monitoring 573
Information Flow in the Functional Architecture: Modularity versus Interactivity 573
Neural Correlates of the Functional Architecture 574
Summary and Future Directions 575
Further Reading 576
Word Recognition 576
Factors That Influence Word Recognition 576
Frequency 577
Neighborhood Effects 577
Mapping from Spelling to Sound in Visual Word Recognition 577
Word Recognition Influences Lower Levels of Processing 578
Phoneme Restoration and the Ganong Effect 578
The Reicher-Wheeler Effect and `Interactive Activation´ 578
Word Recognition Models and Controversies in Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience 579
Interactive Processing with Feedback or Autonomous, Feed-Forward Processing? 579
`Words and Rules´ or `Constraint Satisfaction´? 579
Neuroanatomy of Word Recognition 580
Superior Temporal Gyrus and Superior Temporal Sulcus 580
Inferior Frontal Gyrus 580
The `Visual Word Form Area´ 581
Summary 581
Further Reading 581
Written Language, Acquired Impairments of 581
Introduction 581
Phylogenetic Observations 582
Writing Systems 582
Reading and Spelling Impairments in Classical Aphasiology 582
Pure Forms of Reading and Writing Disorders 583
Cognitive Models of Reading 583
Dual Route Models of Reading 583
Lexical Analogy Models 584
Reading Impairments in a Cognitive Neuropsychological Frame 585
Phonological or Surface Dyslexia 585
Direct Dyslexia 585
Deep Dyslexia 585
Letter-by-Letter Reading 585
Neglect Dyslexia 585
Diagnosis of Reading Impairments 585
Clinical Neuropsychological Classification of the Spelling Impairments 586
Aphasic Agraphia 587
Alexia with Agraphia 587
Pure Agraphia 587
Apraxic Agraphia 587
Callosal Agraphia 587
Visuospatial (Neglect) Agraphia 587
Cognitive Models of Spelling 587
Spelling Impairments in a Cognitive Neuropsychological Frame 588
Deep Dysgraphia 588
Graphemic Buffer Disorders 588
Peripheral Dysgraphia (Allographic Dysgraphia) 588
Diagnosis of Spelling Impairments 589
Bibliography 589
Index 590

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 8.4.2010
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Schulbuch / Wörterbuch ► Wörterbuch / Fremdsprachen
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Allgemeine Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Verhaltenstherapie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Sprach- / Literaturwissenschaft ► Sprachwissenschaft
• Themenwelt: Medizin / Pharmazie ► Medizinische Fachgebiete ► Neurologie
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Humanbiologie
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Zoologie
• ISBN-13: 9780080964997 / 9780080964997