International Review of Research in Mental Retardation (eBook)

eBook Download: PDF

1997 | 1. Auflage
263 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
9780080857985 (ISBN)

Infos

This serial was established under the editorship of Dr. Norman R. Ellis in 1966. As a result of his editorial effort and the contributions of many authors, the serial is now recognized as the area's best source of reviews of behavioral research on mental retardation. From its inception, active research scientists and graduate students in mental retardation have looked to this serial as a major source of critical reviews of research and theory in the area.

Inhalt

Front Cover 1
International Review of Research in Mental Retardation, Volume 20 4
Board of Asssociate Editors 3
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Contributors 10
Preface 12
Chapter 1. Parenting Children with Mental Retardation 16
I. Introduction 16
II. Parenting and Society 17
III. Children with Mental Retardation: Influences on Parents 21
IV. Parenting Challenges, Adaptations, and Programs 26
V. Parents with Mental Retardation 45
VI. Parenting and Out-of-Home Placement 48
References 51
Chapter 2. Family Interactions and Family Adaptation 62
I. Introduction 62
II. Family Adaptation as a Context for Studying Family Interactions 63
III. Research on Parent–Child Interactions 64
IV. The Family Interaction Project 74
V. Summary and Directions for Future Research 85
References 86
Chapter 3. Studying Culturally Diverse Families of Children with Mental Retardation 90
I. Introduction 90
II. Conceptual and Methodological Issues 92
Ill. Research on Diverse Families of Children with Mental Retardation 101
IV. Some Considerations for Research 108
References 109
Chapter 4. Older Adults with Mental Retardation and Their Families 114
I. Introduction 114
II. Conceptualization of Aging 114
III. The Changing Demographics 116
IV. Age-Related Changes 118
V. The Family as the Largest Provider of Care 124
VI. Increasing Personal Empowerment and Self-Advocacy 132
VII. Service Trends and Programmatic Research 133
VIII. Future Research Agenda 141
References 142
Chapter 5. A Review of Psychiatric and Family Research in Mental Retardation 152
I. Introduction 152
II. The Research under Review 153
Ill. Objective Measures of the Burden of Care 158
IV. Family lnteractional Patterns 159
V. Adverse Environmental Influences from the Family 161
VI. Normal Siblings as Controls 162
VII. Conclusions and Directions for Future Research 166
References 167
Chapter 6. A Cognitive Portrait of Grade School Students with Mild Mental Retardation 172
I. Introduction 172
II. General Characteristics of Concurrent Validity Studies 175
Ill. Oddity Tasks 175
IV. Taxonomic Tasks 188
V. Memory Tasks 195
VI. Combining Memory Tasks 199
VII.Conclusions 201
References 201
Chapter 7. Employment and Mental Retardation 206
I. lntroduction 206
II. The Goal of Vocational Habilitation 207
Ill. The Availability of Work 208
IV. Work and Quality of Life 211
V. Traditional Employment Options 215
VI. Improving Vocational Habilitation Outcomes 222
VII. Summary 254
References 256
Index 266

Textauszug

Parenting Children with Mental Retardation

Bruce L. Baker    Department of Psychology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California 90024

Jan Blacher    School of Education University of California, Riverside Riverside, California 92521

Claire B. Kopp    Department of Psychology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California 90024

Bonnie Kraemer    School of Education University of California, Riverside Riverside, California 92521

I INTRODUCTION

Parenting a child with a developmental disability is more like parenting a normally developing child than it is different. There are, however, additional challenges that often loom so large that considering them tends to obscure the commonalities in what parents experience. It is essential to recognize as we focus on parenting children with mental retardation that most parenting considerations are similar to those with normally developing children.

The parenting literature is in large part guided by the observation that children and parents influence one another (Bell, 1968; Sameroff & Chandler, 1975). When a parent or child presents markedly deviant behavior there will quite likely be extraordinary effects on their interactions and ultimately on the other person. We will consider the unique influence of a child with mental retardation and related developmental disabilities on the parents, as well as the parental influences that best facilitate the development of that child. We will focus more on children with moderate or severe mental retardation, as the families of these children have received more study than those whose children have mild retardation (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).

Although virtually no parent would wish for retardation in a child, when faced with the reality most parents respond with acceptance and love, as with the birth of any child. Not surprisingly, most parents also experience heightened stress. As the child fails to meet first one developmental milestone and then another and another, parents are faced with unique challenges. We will consider the primary ways that children with mental retardation deviate from expected development and the adaptations in parenting that ensue. Fortunately, most parents find ways to cope, sometimes aided by supports and services from outside the family.

II PARENTING AND SOCIETY

Parenting is, of course, greatly influenced by forces beyond the child and family, such as day care and school programs, service agencies, workplace practices, religious institutions and practices, governmental laws and practices, and subcultural and cultural expectations. Although a thorough consideration of these influences is beyond our scope here, we will mention several major factors that affect parenting a child with a developmental disability in the United States at the close of the 20th century.

A Family Preservation, Support, and Empowerment

Parenting attitudes and practices are swayed greatly by the professional Zeitgeist. Today, services to families are influenced by the widely accepted principle of family preservation—that children should remain with their families and be served in their local communities (Blacher, 1994; Jenson & Whittaker, 1989; Pecora, Fraser, & Haapala, 1992). This emphasis emerged from concern about the vagaries of the foster care system; it was codified in the federal Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980, which requires state service providers to maintain a child with the family or to make alternative permanent plans if the parents cannot provide care. A related philosophy is that of family support and empowerment, urging a reshaping of human service policies and practices to “place primary emphasis on the strengthening of individual and family functioning in ways that empower people to act on their own behalf” (Dunst, Trivette, Starnes, Hamby, & Gordon, 1993, p. 3). As a consequence of these perspectives, family members are playing a much greater role in all aspects of service delivery (Dunst et al., 1993).

B The Philosophy of Inclusion

The history of education and service provision for children with exceptional needs can be described in terms of a steady movement from exclusion to inclusion (Reynolds & Birch, 1982). The concept of inclusion (i.e., inclusive education, inclusive living) is one that has evolved from a string of predecessors, including mainstreaming, integration, and supported education. Inclusion is rooted philosophically in such constructs as the normalization principle (Nirje, 1969), the zero reject policy (Alper & Ryndak, 1992), and the concept of partial participation (Ferguson & Baumgart, 1991). It is rooted legally in case law such as Brown v. the Board of Education (1954), and such federal legislation as section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-476). Moreover, it is rooted in human rights issues such as quality of life, individual empowerment, and self-determination (Powers & Sowers, 1994). In essence, although inclusion has a variety of definitions and is often utilized in an array of contexts, it is an ever-evolving construct. We view inclusion primarily as a philosophy, not a specific placement or combination of services. It is consistent with terms like membership, participation, cooperation, contribution, respect, acceptance, and opportunities.

For parents of children with disabilities the implementation of inclusive practices has increased opportunities for the child but also responsibilities for themselves. When educational services for school-aged children with disabilities consisted solely of programs that were separate from services for children without disabilities (Alper & Ryndak, 1992), parents’ decision-making role was circumscribed. With the thrust of inclusionary practices, though, parents are faced with a complex constellation of decisions involving not only appropriate Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) goals and objectives, but also the most appropriate teaching environment, supports, and aids for meeting these. Shrybman (1982), writing about due process in special education, listed responsibilities of parents, beginning with “1. Keep written records with copies of all of their letters to and from officials and school personnel” (p. 218) and continuing through 119 items! Being appropriately informed can become more than a full-time job.

A growing number of parents, educators, service providers, and researchers are advocating that all students, regardless of level or type of disability, be integrated into the mainstream of community life. For school-aged children there has been a particular emphasis on integrating or including all children into the regular education environment, a concept called “full inclusion” or the “regular education initiative” (Meyer, Peck, & Brown, 1991). These advocates believe that it is time to stop developing criteria for who does or does not belong in the mainstream; the focus should instead be on increasing the capabilities of the regular education environment to meet the unique needs of all students (Stainback, Stainback, & Bunch, 1989). Opponents of full inclusion argue that pull-out special education programs can give more specialized academic and social instruction than can large regular education classes where teachers have little expertise in assisting children with mental retardation (Kauffman, 1991). Focus group discussions with educators, parents, and students have found both positions articulated (York & Tundidor, 1995).

Many parents, understandably, are wary of including their child in the mainstream of general education. They fear that the child will lose needed supports and services that separate programs can provide. Moreover, they fear that general educators lack the expertise as well as the time necessary to educate the child, addressing his or her individual needs. There is also some anxiety that the child will be seen as different in the mainstream and thus will be at risk for discomfort or actual abuse (Fullwood, 1990). At the same time, parents of children without disabilities have reservations of their own about inclusion. They question, again understandably, whether the increasingly overburdened teacher can continue to meet their child’s educational needs.

Inclusionary practices, typical of many practices in the mental retardation field, have been driven much more by philosophy and advocacy than by empirical evidence about effectiveness. There is some documentation in the literature, however, of benefits to children both with and without disabilities as a result of inclusive educational practices. Students with severe disabilities learned more of their IEP objectives in integrated settings (Brinker & Thorpe, 1983, 1984), and those with autism generalized newly acquired social behaviors considerably better in integrated settings than segregated ones (Strain, 1983).

Several studies have supported the social benefits of inclusive educational practices to students with disabilities (Hall, 1994; Kennedy & Itkonen, 1994; McDonnell, McDonnell, Hardman, & McCune, 1991; Peck, Donaldson, &...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 1.5.1997
• Mitarbeit: Herausgeber (Serie): Norman W. Bray
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Allgemeine Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Entwicklungspsychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Klinische Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Pädagogische Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Sozialpsychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Verhaltenstherapie
• Themenwelt: Mathematik / Informatik ► Informatik ► Netzwerke
• Themenwelt: Medizin / Pharmazie ► Medizinische Fachgebiete ► Neurologie
• ISBN-13: 9780080857985 / 9780080857985