Semiconductor Power Devices (eBook)
XIX, 723 Seiten
Springer-Verlag
978-3-319-70917-8 (ISBN)
Josef Lutz studied Physics at the University of Stuttgart. He invented the Controlled Axial Lifetime (CAL) diode and holds several patents. In 1999 he graduated as Ph.D in electrical engineering at the University of Ilmenau. Since August 2001 he is a Professor for Power Electronics and Electromagnetic Compatibility at TU Chemnitz, Germany. He is the consulting Director of the PCIM, member of four international Program Committees and member of the Editorial Advisory Board of Microelectronics Reliability. He was awarded with the degree of Honorable Professor by the North Caucasus State University Stavropol, Russia, in 2005.
Heinrich Schlangenotto received the Ph.D. degree in theoretical physics at the University of Münster. In 1966 he joined the Research Institute of AEG-Telefunken in Frankfurt which in 1988 passes to Daimler-Benz. Working on the physics underlying the operation modes of semiconductor power devices, he improved the description of forward conduction based on a new insight in the spatial distribution of recombination. Investigating the injection and temperature dependence of radiative recombination, which is used in analysing device operation, he finds an important participation of excitons even near room temperature. To improve the dynamic behaviour of rectifier diodes he invented the fast, soft recovery SPEED-diode. He gave the first quantitative description of the dynamical avalanche mechanism limiting fast switching. From 1991 to 2001 he held a lecture on power devices at the TU Darmstadt, Germany.
Uwe Scheuermann joined Semikron in Nuremberg, Germany, after completing his Ph.D. in semiconductor physics in 1990. After spending 5 years with the development of diode and thyristor chips, he changed his focus to the development of power modules. He has been involved in the development of the advanced power module families without base plates and the implementation of new packaging concepts like spring contacts. He has published more than 50 papers and holds several patents in the field of packaging technology. Today, he is at Semikron responsible for the reliability of components. He is a member of the board of directors of the PCIM Europe and of the program committee of the CIPS. In 2014 he was appointed as honorary professor for electrical engineering at the Friedrich-Alexander-University of Erlangen, where he lectured since 2006.
Rik De Doncker received his degree of Doctor in Electrical Engineering from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium in 1986. During 1987 he was appointed Visiting Associate Professor at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. In 1988, he was employed as a General Electric Company fellow at the microelectronic center IMEC, Leuven, Belgium. In Dec. 1988, he joined the General Electric Company at the Corporate Research and Development Center, Schenectady, NY where he led research on drives and high power soft-switching converters, ranging from 100 kW to 4 MW, for aerospace, industrial and traction applications. In 1994 he joined Silicon Power Corporation (formerly GE-SPCO) as Vice President Technology where he worked on high power converter systems and MTO devices and was responsible for the development and production of world's first 15 kV medium voltage transfer switch. Since Oct. 1996 he became professor at the RWTH-Aachen, where he leads the Institut für Stromrichtertechnik und Elektrische Antriebe (ISEA).Josef Lutz studied Physics at the University of Stuttgart. He invented the Controlled Axial Lifetime (CAL) diode and holds several patents. In 1999 he graduated as Ph.D in electrical engineering at the University of Ilmenau. Since August 2001 he is a Professor for Power Electronics and Electromagnetic Compatibility at TU Chemnitz, Germany. He is the consulting Director of the PCIM, member of four international Program Committees and member of the Editorial Advisory Board of Microelectronics Reliability. He was awarded with the degree of Honorable Professor by the North Caucasus State University Stavropol, Russia, in 2005. Heinrich Schlangenotto received the Ph.D. degree in theoretical physics at the University of Münster. In 1966 he joined the Research Institute of AEG-Telefunken in Frankfurt which in 1988 passes to Daimler-Benz. Working on the physics underlying the operation modes of semiconductor power devices, he improved the description of forward conduction based on a new insight in the spatial distribution of recombination. Investigating the injection and temperature dependence of radiative recombination, which is used in analysing device operation, he finds an important participation of excitons even near room temperature. To improve the dynamic behaviour of rectifier diodes he invented the fast, soft recovery SPEED-diode. He gave the first quantitative description of the dynamical avalanche mechanism limiting fast switching. From 1991 to 2001 he held a lecture on power devices at the TU Darmstadt, Germany. Uwe Scheuermann joined Semikron in Nuremberg, Germany, after completing his Ph.D. in semiconductor physics in 1990. After spending 5 years with the development of diode and thyristor chips, he changed his focus to the development of power modules. He has been involved in the development of the advanced power module families without base plates and the implementation of new packaging concepts like spring contacts. He has published more than 50 papers and holds several patents in the field of packaging technology. Today, he is at Semikron responsible for the reliability of components. He is a member of the board of directors of the PCIM Europe and of the program committee of the CIPS. In 2014 he was appointed as honorary professor for electrical engineering at the Friedrich-Alexander-University of Erlangen, where he lectured since 2006. Rik De Doncker received his degree of Doctor in Electrical Engineering from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium in 1986. During 1987 he was appointed Visiting Associate Professor at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. In 1988, he was employed as a General Electric Company fellow at the microelectronic center IMEC, Leuven, Belgium. In Dec. 1988, he joined the General Electric Company at the Corporate Research and Development Center, Schenectady, NY where he led research on drives and high power soft-switching converters, ranging from 100 kW to 4 MW, for aerospace, industrial and traction applications. In 1994 he joined Silicon Power Corporation (formerly GE-SPCO) as Vice President Technology where he worked on high power converter systems and MTO devices and was responsible for the development and production of world’s first 15 kV medium voltage transfer switch. Since Oct. 1996 he became professor at the RWTH-Aachen, where he leads the Institut für Stromrichtertechnik und Elektrische Antriebe (ISEA).
Preface to the Second Edition 5
Preface to the First Edition 7
Contents 9
Symbols 16
1 Power Semiconductor Devices—Key Components for Efficient Electrical Energy Conversion Systems 19
1.1 Systems, Power Converters and Power Semiconductor Devices 19
1.1.1 Basic Principles of Power Converters 21
1.1.2 Types of Power Converters and Selection of Power Devices 23
1.2 Operating and Selecting Power Semiconductors 26
1.3 Applications of Power Semiconductors 29
1.4 Power Electronics for Carbon Emission Reduction 32
References 36
2 Semiconductor Properties 39
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Crystal Structure 42
2.3 Energy Gap and Intrinsic Concentration 44
2.4 Energy Band Structure and Particle Properties of Carriers 49
2.5 The Doped Semiconductor 53
2.6 Current Transport 63
2.6.1 Carrier Mobilities and Field Currents 63
2.6.2 High-Field Drift Velocities 70
2.6.3 Diffusion of Carriers, Current Transport Equations and Einstein Relation 72
2.7 Recombination—Generation and Lifetime of Non-equilibrium Carriers 75
2.7.1 Intrinsic Recombination Mechanisms 77
2.7.2 Recombination at Recombination Centers Including Gold, Platinum and Radiation Defects 79
2.8 Impact Ionization 99
2.9 Basic Equations of Semiconductor Devices 106
2.10 Simple Conclusions 110
2.10.1 Temporal and Spatial Decay of a Minority Carrier Concentration 110
2.10.2 Temporal and Spatial Decay of a Charge Density 111
References 112
3 pn-Junctions 118
3.1 The pn-Junction in Thermal Equilibrium 118
3.1.1 The Abrupt Step Junction 121
3.1.2 Graded Junctions 128
3.2 Current-Voltage-Characteristics of the pn-Junction 131
3.3 Blocking Characteristics and Breakdown of the pn-Junction 139
3.3.1 Blocking Current 139
3.3.2 Avalanche Multiplication and Breakdown Voltage 143
3.3.3 Blocking Capability with Wide-Bandgap Semiconductors 152
3.4 Injection Efficiency of Emitter Regions 154
3.5 Capacitance of pn-Junctions 161
References 164
4 Introduction to Power Device Technology 166
4.1 Crystal Growth 166
4.2 Neutron Transmutation for Adjustment of the Wafer Doping 168
4.3 Epitaxial Growth 171
4.4 Diffusion 173
4.4.1 Diffusion Theory, Impurity Distributions 174
4.4.2 Diffusion Constants and Solubility of Dopants 182
4.4.3 High Concentration Effects, Diffusion Mechanisms 185
4.5 Ion Implantation 187
4.6 Oxidation and Masking 192
4.7 Edge Terminations 194
4.8 Passivation 199
4.9 Recombination Centers 200
4.10 Radiation-Induced Doping 206
4.11 Some Aspects on Technology of GaN Devices 208
References 213
5 pin Diodes 218
5.1 Structure of the pin Diode 218
5.2 I–V Characteristic of the pin Diode 220
5.3 Design and Blocking Voltage of the pin Diode 221
5.4 Forward Conduction Behavior 227
5.4.1 Carrier Distribution 227
5.4.2 Junction Voltages 230
5.4.3 Voltage Drop Across the Middle Region 232
5.4.4 Voltage Drop in the Hall Approximation 233
5.4.5 Emitter-Recombination, Effective Carrier Lifetime and Forward Characteristic 235
5.4.6 Temperature Dependency of the Forward Characteristics 244
5.5 Relation Between Stored Charge and Forward Voltage 245
5.6 Turn-on Behavior of Power Diodes 247
5.7 Reverse-Recovery of Power Diodes 249
5.7.1 Definitions 249
5.7.2 Reverse-Recovery Related Power Losses 256
5.7.3 Reverse Recovery: Charge Dynamic in the Diode 260
5.7.4 Fast Diodes with Optimized Reverse-Recovery Behavior 268
5.7.4.1 Diodes with a Doping Step in the Low-Doped Layer 268
5.7.4.2 Diodes with Anode Structures for Improving the Recovery Behavior 269
5.7.4.3 The EMCON-Diode 271
5.7.4.4 The CAL-Diode 273
5.7.4.5 The Hybrid Diode 275
5.7.4.6 The Tandem Diode 277
5.7.5 MOS-Controlled Diodes 278
5.7.5.1 Diodes with Cathode Side Hole Injection 285
5.8 Outlook 285
References 286
6 Schottky Diodes 288
6.1 Energy Band Diagram of the Metal-Semiconductor Junction 288
6.2 Current-Voltage-Characteristics of the Schottky Junction 290
6.3 Structure of Schottky Diodes 292
6.4 Ohmic Voltage Drop of a Unipolar Device 293
6.4.1 Comparison of Silicon Schottky Diodes and pin Diodes for Rated Voltages of 200 and 100 V 297
6.5 Schottky Diodes Based on SiC 297
6.5.1 SiC Unipolar Diode Characteristics 297
6.5.2 Merged Pin Schottky (MPS) Diodes 302
6.5.3 Switching Behavior and Ruggedness of SiC Schottky and MPS Diodes 306
References 309
7 Bipolar Transistors 311
7.1 Function of the Bipolar Transistor 311
7.2 Structure of the Bipolar Power Transistor 313
7.3 I–V Characteristic of the Power Transistor 313
7.4 Blocking Behavior of the Bipolar Power Transistor 315
7.5 Current Gain of the Bipolar Transistor 317
7.6 Base Widening, Field Redistribution and Second Breakdown 322
7.7 Limits of the Silicon Bipolar Transistor 325
7.8 SiC Bipolar Transistor 325
References 326
8 Thyristors 328
8.1 Structure and Mode of Function 328
8.2 I–V Characteristic of the Thyristor 332
8.3 Blocking Behavior of the Thyristor 333
8.4 The Function of Emitter Shorts 335
8.5 Modes to Trigger a Thyristor 336
8.6 Trigger Front Spreading 338
8.7 Follow-up Triggering and Amplifying Gate 339
8.8 Thyristor Turn-off and Recovery Time 342
8.9 The Triac 344
8.10 The Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO) 345
8.11 The Gate Commutated Thyristor (GCT) 350
References 354
9 MOS Transistors and Field Controlled Wide Bandgap Devices 356
9.1 Function Principle of the MOSFET 356
9.2 Structure of Power MOSFETs 358
9.3 Current-Voltage Characteristic of MOS-Transistors 361
9.4 Characteristics of the MOSFET Channel 362
9.5 The Ohmic Region 366
9.6 Compensation Structures in Modern MOSFETs 368
9.7 Temperature Dependency of MOSFET Characteristics 372
9.8 Switching Properties of the MOSFET 374
9.9 Switching Losses of the MOSFET 379
9.10 Safe Operating Area of the MOSFET 380
9.11 The Inverse Diode of the MOSFET 381
9.12 SiC Field Effect Devices 386
9.12.1 SiC JFETs 386
9.12.2 SiC MOSFETs 389
9.12.3 The SiC MOSFET Body Diode 392
9.13 GaN Lateral Power Transistors 393
9.14 GaN Vertical Power Transistors 400
9.15 Outlook 401
References 402
10 IGBTs 406
10.1 Mode of Function 406
10.2 The I–V Characteristic of the IGBT 409
10.3 The Switching Behavior of the IGBT 410
10.4 The Basic Types PT-IGBT and NPT-IGBT 413
10.5 Plasma Distribution in the IGBT 417
10.6 Modern IGBTs with Increased Charge Carrier Density 419
10.6.1 Plasma Enhancement by High n-Emitter Efficiency 419
10.6.2 The “Latch-up Free Cell Geometry” 423
10.6.3 The Effect of the “Hole Barrier” 424
10.6.4 Collector Side Buffer Layers 426
10.7 IGBTs with Bidirectional Blocking Capability 427
10.8 Reverse Conducting IGBTs 429
10.9 The Potential of the IGBT 433
References 437
11 Packaging of Power Devices 441
11.1 The Challenge of Packaging Technology 441
11.2 Package Types 443
11.2.1 Capsules 444
11.2.2 The TO-Family and Its Relatives 447
11.2.3 Modules 451
11.3 Physical Properties of Materials 457
11.4 Thermal Simulation and Thermal Equivalent Circuits 459
11.4.1 Analogy Between Thermal and Electrical Parameters 459
11.4.2 One-Dimensional Equivalent Networks 466
11.4.3 The Three-Dimensional Thermal Network 468
11.4.4 The Transient Thermal Resistance 469
11.5 Parasitic Electrical Elements in Power Modules 472
11.5.1 Parasitic Resistances 473
11.5.2 Parasitic Inductances 476
11.5.3 Parasitic Capacities 480
11.6 Advanced Packaging Technologies 483
11.6.1 Silver Sintering Technology 484
11.6.2 Diffusion Soldering 486
11.6.3 Advanced Technologies for the Chip Topside Contact 489
11.6.4 Improved Substrates 493
11.6.5 Advanced Packaging Concepts 495
References 499
12 Reliability and Reliability Testing 503
12.1 The Demand for Increasing Reliability 503
12.2 High Temperature Reverse Bias Test 506
12.3 High Temperature Gate Stress Test 509
12.4 Temperature Humidity Bias Test 513
12.5 High Temperature and Low Temperature Storage Tests 516
12.6 Temperature Cycling and Temperature Shock Test 517
12.7 Power Cycling Test 519
12.7.1 Power Cycling Test Execution 519
12.7.2 Power Cycling Induced Failure Mechanisms 525
12.7.2.1 Bond Wire Degradation 525
12.7.2.2 Reconstruction of metallization 528
12.7.2.3 Solder Fatigue 532
12.7.3 Models for Lifetime Prediction 536
12.7.4 Separation of Failure Modes 540
12.7.5 Mission Profiles and Superposition of Power Cycles 544
12.7.6 Power Cycling Capability of Molded TO Packages 548
12.7.7 Power Cycling of SiC Devices 550
12.8 Cosmic Ray Failures 555
12.8.1 The Salt Mine Experiment 555
12.8.2 Origin of Cosmic Rays 556
12.8.3 Cosmic Ray Failure Patterns 559
12.8.4 Basic Failure Mechanism Model 561
12.8.5 Basic Design Rules 562
12.8.6 Extended Model Considering the nn+ Junction 567
12.8.7 Further Design Aspects in Extended Models 572
12.8.8 Cosmic Ray Stability of SiC Devices 573
12.9 Statistical Evaluation of Reliability Test Results 577
12.10 Further Reliability Tests 588
References 590
13 Destructive Mechanisms in Power Devices 596
13.1 Thermal Breakdown—Failures by Excess-Temperature 596
13.2 Surge Current 599
13.3 Overvoltage – Voltage Above Blocking Capability 603
13.4 Dynamic Avalanche 609
13.4.1 Dynamic Avalanche in Bipolar Devices 609
13.4.2 Dynamic Avalanche in Fast Diodes 611
13.4.2.1 Dynamic Avalanche of the First Degree 612
13.4.2.2 Dynamic Avalanche of the Second Degree 613
13.4.2.3 Dynamic Avalanche of the Third Degree 615
13.4.3 Diode Structures with High Dynamic Avalanche Capability 621
13.4.4 Turn-off of Over-Current and Dynamic Avalanche in IGBTs 625
13.5 Exceeding the Maximum Turn-off Current of GTOs 628
13.6 Short-Circuit in IGBTs 629
13.6.1 Short Circuit Types I, II and III 629
13.6.2 Thermal and Electrical Stress in Short Circuit 634
13.6.2.1 Thermal Limits for Medium-Voltage IGBTs 636
13.6.3 Current Filamentation at Short Circuit 639
13.7 Failure Analysis in IGBT Circuits 643
References 646
14 Power Device Induced Oscillations and Electromagnetic Disturbances 650
14.1 Frequency Range of Electromagnetic Disturbances 650
14.2 LC Oscillations 653
14.2.1 Turn-off Oscillations with IGBTs Connected in Parallel 653
14.2.2 Turn-off Oscillations with Snappy Diodes 655
14.2.3 Turn-off Oscillations with Wide Bandgap Devices 658
14.3 Transit-Time Oscillations 660
14.3.1 Plasma-Extraction Transit-Time (PETT) Oscillations 661
14.3.2 Dynamic Impact-Ionization Transit-Time (IMPATT) Oscillations 668
14.3.3 Transient-Avalanche (TA) Oscillations 672
14.3.4 Summarizing Remarks on Transit-Time Oscillations 676
References 677
15 Integrated Power Electronic Systems 679
15.1 Definition and Basic Features 679
15.2 Monolithically Integrated Systems – Power IC’s 682
15.3 GaN Monolithic Integrated Systems 685
15.4 System Integration on Printed Circuit Board 688
15.5 Hybrid Integration 691
References 697
Appendix A: Modeling Parameters of Carrier Mobilities in Si and 4H-SiC 700
A.1ƒMobilities in Silicon 700
A.2ƒMobilities in 4H-SiC 701
Appendix B: Correlates to Recombination Centers 702
B.1ƒEffective Degeneracy Factors 702
B.2ƒCharge of Deep Impurities with Two Levels 705
B.3ƒRecombination Parameters of Gold in Silicon 705
Appendix C: Avalanche Multiplication Factors and Effective Ionization Rate 708
C.1ƒMultiplication Factors 708
C.2ƒEffective Ionization Rate and Breakdown Condition for Diodes 710
References for Appendices A, B and C 711
Appendix D: Thermal Parameters of Important Materials in Packaging Technology 713
Appendix E: Electric Parameters of Important Materials in Packaging Technology 714
References for Appendices D and E 715
Index 716
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 16.2.2018 |
|---|---|
| Zusatzinfo | XIX, 714 p. |
| Verlagsort | Cham |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik |
| Technik ► Maschinenbau | |
| Schlagworte | Fast Diodes • IGBT • MOFSET • Packaging Technology • Power Electronics |
| ISBN-10 | 3-319-70917-8 / 3319709178 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-3-319-70917-8 / 9783319709178 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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