Alternative Energy Systems and Applications (eBook)

B. K. Hodge (Autor)

eBook Download: EPUB

2017 | 2. Auflage
464 Seiten
Wiley (Verlag)
978-1-119-10923-5 (ISBN)

Infos

The comprehensive guide to engineering alternative and renewable energy systems and applications-updated for the latest trends and technologies 

This book was designed tohelp engineers develop new solutions for the current energy economy. To that end it provides technical discussions, along with numerous real-world examples of virtually all existing alternative energy sources, applications, systems and system components. All chapters focus on first-order engineering calculations, and consider alternative uses of existing and renewable energy resources. Just as important, the author describes how to apply these concepts to the development of new energy solutions. 

Since the publication of the critically acclaimed first edition of this book, the alternative, renewable and sustainable energy industries have witnessed significant evolution and growth. Hydraulic fracturing, fossil fuel reserve increases, the increasing popularity of hybrid and all-electric vehicles, and the decreasing cost of solar power already have had a significant impact on energy usage patterns worldwide. Updated and revised to reflect those and other key developments, this new edition features expanded coverage of topics covered in the first edition, as well as entirely new chapters on hydraulic fracturing and fossil fuels, hybrid and all-electric vehicles, and more.

• Begins with a fascinating look at the changing face of global energy economy
• Features chapters devoted to virtually all sources of alternative energy and energy systems
• Offers technical discussions of hydropower, wind, passive solar and solar-thermal, photovoltaics, fuel cells, CHP systems, geothermal, ocean energy, biomass, and nuclear
• Contains updated chapter review questions, homework problems, and a thoroughly revised solutions manual, available on the companion website

While Alternative Energy Systems and Applications, Second Edition is an ideal textbook/reference for advanced undergraduate and graduate level engineering courses in energy-related subjects, it is also an indispensable professional resource for engineers and technicians working in areas related to the development of alternative/renewable energy systems.

B. K. Hodge is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at Mississippi State University (MSU) where he continues to be involved in MSU mechanical engineering education and research activities. His research areas include enhanced heat transfer, thermal systems simulation, and energy engineering.  He also served as the Director of the MSU Industrial Assessment Center.  Prior to retirement, B. K. Hodge held the Tennessee Valley Authority Professorship in Energy Systems and the Environment and was Giles Distinguished Professor of Mechanical Engineering and a Grisham Master Teacher.  He has served as Chair of the ASEE Mechanical Engineering Division and as President of the ASEE Southeastern Section.  He is a Fellow of the American Society for Engineering Education and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and an Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

Textauszug

1
Energy Usage in the USA and the World

1.1 Energy and Power

A review of the customary units used for energy and power is appropriate to initiate a study of alternative energy sources and applications. Although much of the world uses the SI system (Le Système International d'Unités), the USA, in addition to the SI system, also uses the English Engineering and the British Gravitational systems of units. The unit of energy in the SI system is the newton meter (N m) which is defined as the joule (J). Energy in the English Engineering system is defined as the British thermal unit (Btu), or alternately, the foot-pound force (ft lbf); the conversion factor is . Power is the rate of energy usage or transfer, in joules per second, British thermal units per second, or foot-pound force per second. Power expressed in joules per second is defined as the watt (W). The most frequently used power unit is 1000 W or 1 kW. In the USA, power is sometimes expressed in terms of horsepower (hp), where 1 hp is 550 ft lbf/s or 0.7457 kW. The kilowatt-hour (kW h) is a frequently used unit of energy and represents an energy rate (kilowatts) times a time (hour). The conversion is . Anyone engaged in an energy engineering activity needs to remember the conversion between British thermal units and kilowatt-hours; in most instances is used.

Tester et al. (2012) provide a sampling of power expended for various activities. Some of their results are reproduced as Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Power expended for various activities.

Activity

Power expended

Pumping human heart

Household light bulb

Human, hard work

0.1 kW

Draft horse

1 kW

Portable floor heater

1.5 kW

Compact automobile

100 kW

SUV

160 kW

Combustion turbine

Large ocean liner

Boeing 747 at cruise

Coal-fired power plant

Niagara Falls hydroelectric plant

The range of power expended is astonishing, about nine orders of magnitude. The entries of Table 1.1 indicate various levels of power expended referenced to everyday experiences and can be used to establish a sense of numeracy for power magnitudes.

1.2 Energy Usage and Standard of Living

An irrefutable fact is that developed countries (e.g., USA, Japan, UK) use more energy per capita than less-developed countries (e.g., Mexico, Indonesia). Figure 1.1 graphically presents the HDI (Human Development Index) as a function of the kilograms of oil equivalent (kgoe) per capita per year. The HDI is a measure of the standard of living, and the kilograms of oil equivalent per capita per year is indicative of the energy consumption. The industrialized nations have HDI values in excess of 0.9, while many of the developing countries' HDI values are dramatically less. The correlation between HDI and kilowatt-hour usage is functionally very strong. However, once a threshold of about 3000 kgoe per capita is reached, further increases in electricity usage do not produce a higher HDI. Iceland has the highest HDI, followed by the USA. Some countries with the higher kilowatt-hour usage have large infrastructure length scales and traditions of abundant energy. One of the main themes from Golemberg and Johansson (2004) is that the only way to increase the HDI in developing nations is to increase their energy usage.

Figure 1.1 Human Development Index (HDI) as a function of per capita kilowatt-hour consumption. Source: Golemberg and Johansson (2004). Reproduced with permission of UNDP.

An alternative approach is to examine the gross national product (GNP) per capita as a function of the energy consumption per capita. Figure 1.2a was developed using World Bank information from 1992. Figure 1.2b was developed from more recent World Bank data. The more recent data were mostly from 2012–2013, although data from some developing countries were less recent. The energy usage per capita information from the World Bank is presented in kilograms of oil equivalent per capita; hence, the ordinates for Figure 1.2a and b are in different energy units and the abscissas, in dollars, are not adjusted for inflation. A comparison of Figure 1.2a and b reveals no significant differences in relative positions for the developed countries, but China has made real gains in GNP per capita since the 1992 data, and, as expected, the energy use per capita has increased relative to other developing countries since 1992. In Figures 1.1 and 1.2, the USA exhibits per capita kilowatt-hours and energy usages that are large even for developed countries. A number of reasons exist for the high energy consumption per capita in the USA; among them are (1) historically cheap energy, (2) low population density, (3) large area (large infrastructure length scale), and (4) historically an abundance of domestic energy.

Figure 1.2 Per capita energy consumption versus GNP per capita for a number of countries. (a) 1992 World Bank data. Source: Tester et al. (2005). (b) Recent World Bank data (www.worldbank.org, 2012–2013).

Starting with the first “energy crisis” of the late 1970s, low energy costs and domestic energy abundance seemingly vanished from the USA. From the 1970s through to about 2005, the USA required increasing energy imports (chiefly in the form of petroleum) and nearly monotonic energy cost price escalations. The dependence on energy imports dramatically affected both the economy and the foreign policy posture of the USA. Indeed, the basis of the first edition of this textbook was the need to consider both alternative energy sources and alternative (read more efficient utilization) energy applications to address the energy problems faced in the USA. Since about 2005, increased domestic production of fossil fuels (by enhanced oil recovery via “hydraulic fracturing”) and identification of heretofore undiscovered natural gas reserves have altered the expected increases in both energy imports and energy prices. In effect, the US energy economy is being given another chance to reduce energy cost economic impacts via enhanced energy efficiency of existing resources. Chapter 17 examines this topic.

The energy problems in the USA are exacerbated by the demand and expectation of countries (e.g., India and China) to increase the standard of living for their citizens. World energy consumption is rising faster than energy consumption in the USA. Section 1.5 examines world energy consumption patterns.

1.3 A Historical Perspective of Energy Usage in the USA

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the US Department of Energy provides a readily accessible and up-to-date source of energy statistics. The EIA web site is www.eia.doe.gov. The EIA provides on a timely basis monthly and yearly energy statistics for the USA. These monthly energy statistics are available in the Monthly Energy Review (MER), and a yearly energy summary appears in the Annual Energy Review (AER) about 8 months after the end of the calendar year and can be accessed from www.eia.doe.gov/aer. As of 2012, the AER has been suspended because of budget concerns. The suspension of the AER is quite unfortunate as it was arguably the most useful of the EIA periodic documents. The basis for the information contained herein is from the MERs available online at www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/.

Figure 1.3, a mosaic of satellite photographs at night of the USA, is a rather dramatic illustration of the population density and dispersion of the population of the USA as well as the energy intensity distribution of night lighting (primarily electricity usage).

Figure 1.3 Mosaic of night satellite photographs of the USA. Source: EIA.

Consider how the USA arrived at its current energy economy. Figure 1.4, taken from the EIA data, presents a graphical representation of the historical energy utilization. The energy usage unit used is the quad (quadrillion Btu is 1015 Btu). Until the mid-1800s, energy utilization was mostly wood, with coal becoming increasingly important after 1850. By 1900, coal usage was much greater than wood, and petroleum was becoming more important as an energy source. And in 1950, petroleum usage exceeded coal usage, and natural gas usage was dramatically rising. At the millennium, petroleum provided the most energy, with natural gas and coal vying for second and third place. Nuclear power was in fourth place, with hydroelectric and renewable energy (including wood) sources making the smallest contributions. Details of the energy utilization in 2014 will be explored in Section 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Historical energy utilization in the USA (1775–2012). Source: EIA.

The genesis of the energy problem is illustrated in Figure 1.5. Until about 1950, the USA had little dependence on energy imports. However, with the post-World War II prosperity, energy exports began to increase since...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 2.3.2017
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Physik / Astronomie
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Bauwesen
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Maschinenbau
• Schlagworte: Energie • Energy • Erneuerbare Energien • Maschinenbau • mechanical engineering • renewable energy
• ISBN-10: 1-119-10923-X / 111910923X
• ISBN-13: 978-1-119-10923-5 / 9781119109235